CN102110749B - Coarsening and etching method of large-area controllable surface of SiC substrate light emitting diode (LED) based on laser - Google Patents
Coarsening and etching method of large-area controllable surface of SiC substrate light emitting diode (LED) based on laser Download PDFInfo
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- CN102110749B CN102110749B CN2010105447013A CN201010544701A CN102110749B CN 102110749 B CN102110749 B CN 102110749B CN 2010105447013 A CN2010105447013 A CN 2010105447013A CN 201010544701 A CN201010544701 A CN 201010544701A CN 102110749 B CN102110749 B CN 102110749B
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Abstract
The invention provides a coarsening and etching method of a large-area controllable surface of a SiC substrate light emitting diode (LED) based on a laser, belonging to the technical field of LED. The surfaces of the SiC substrate and an LED semiconductor material can be coarsened by utilizing that the semiconductor material highly absorbs high-power laser with a wavelength smaller than the absorption wavelength of the band edge of the semiconductor material to perform gasification. An area and a pattern coarsened and etched by the laser are controlled by a high speed scanner or a precise displacement stage; and the wire width and depth of coarsening and etching are regulated by controlling power and focusing degree of the laser. The method can be applied to coarsening and etching of the surface of the SiC substrate GaN-based LED with various structures. The laser is selected on the basis that the wavelength of the laser is smaller than the absorption wavelength of the band edge of the coarsened and etched semiconductor. The method has the advantages of wide application materials, high coarsening and etching speed, large coarsening and etching area, low cost, good coarsening effect, small damage on the semiconductor material and high controllability of coarsening and etching parameters of the system; and by using the method, the problem of coarsening the p-GaN layer and the SiC substrate can be effectively solved. Thus, the method has a great application potential in high-brightness LED production.
Description
Technical field:
The present invention relates to a kind of SiC substrate LED large-area controllable surface coarsening lithographic method, belong to light-emitting diode manufacturing technology field based on laser.
Background technology:
Be under the effort of many well-known research institutions of representative the fifties in last century at IBM Thomas J.Watson Research Center, is that the III-V family semiconductor of representative emerges rapidly in the semiconductor light emitting field with GaAs.Along with the appearance of metal oxide chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) technology, make the semi-conductive growth of high-quality III-V family break through technological potential barrier afterwards, the semiconductor light emitting diode device of various wavelength floods the market in succession.Because semiconductor light-emitting-diode has speciality such as theoretical efficiency height, life-span length, mechanical impact with respect to present luminescent device, worldwide be counted as illuminating device of new generation.But because the generally higher (GaAs:3.2 of the semi-conductive refractive index of III-V family; GaN:2.4); This is limited by the interface total reflection phenomenon with regard to the light that the light-emitting zone that causes LED sends when shining in the air through chip surface; Have only the light of few part can shine device outside (GaAs is about 2.4%, and GaN is about 4%).The interface total reflection phenomenon causes the external quantum efficiency of LED low, is the main cause that restriction LED substitutes existing illuminating device.
People such as Nuese had delivered the method for utilizing the epoxy encapsulation led chip at J.Electrochem Soc.:Solid State Sci. in 1969, and the external quantum efficiency of ruddiness GaAs base LED has been improved 1-2 doubly.Between GaAs material and air, add one deck refractive index and be 1.5 epoxy resin and can effectively increase cirtical angle of total reflection degree, it is outside to make more rays can shine the LED device.But the method is limited for the raising of external quantum efficiency, and has introduced a bed boundary more and also can cause the interface Fresnel, and the radiation aging of resin material also can cause light extraction efficiency to descend simultaneously.
1993, thus people such as Schnitzer at first propose to utilize the method for etching that the semi-conducting material light output surface is carried out the method that alligatoring improves the external quantum efficiency of led chip at Appl.Phys.Lett., have obtained 50% light extraction efficiency.The principle that surface coarsening improves led chip light ejection efficiency is to utilize the concaveconvex structure of LED light output surface, and the light scatter of total reflection angle is gone out or is guided out chip, can shine LED light from outside ratio thereby increase.After this, Windisch has reported that at periodicals such as IEEE Trans.Electron Dev. and Appl.Phys.Lett. similar method carries out alligatoring to the LED light output surface.Utilize the method for etching that the weak point that the LED light output surface carries out alligatoring is: (1) etching has very big destructiveness for the carrier transport properties of semi-conducting material, makes the electric property of LED obviously reduce; (2) etching apparatus purchase and use cost high unusually, make the cost of LED rise significantly; (3) utilize etching that pattern and size that the LED light output surface carries out alligatoring are had no idea to control and optimize.(4) the alligatoring etch period is longer, and production efficiency is lower.
Up to the present, the chemical corrosion method of III-V family semi-conducting materials such as GaAs, GaP and GaN is very few.1998, Stocker published an article at Appl.Phys.Lett., had reported and had utilized hot KOH solution or hot H
3PO
4Successfully realize the corrosion of GaN material, LED has been carried out effective alligatoring, and obtained 50% light extraction efficiency.Utilize the method for chemical corrosion that the deficiency that the LED light output surface carries out alligatoring is: (1) is difficult to the speed and the degree of depth of accurately control corrosion, and this is by the latent defect decision of chemical method; (2) be subject to the influence of factors such as ambient temperature, be difficult to obtain the alligatoring led chip of high duplication; (3) structure that obtains of corrosion is single, is difficult to be optimized to the light extraction effect.(4) the alligatoring etch period is longer, and production efficiency is lower.
In the epitaxial process of semi-conducting material, carry out certain designed and regulation and control; Also can reach the result who the LED light output surface is carried out alligatoring; Like the patent No.: 200910061316; Title: a kind of method that improves LED external quantum efficiency is described, and the growth pattern of P type layer has adopted a kind of method of roughening of novelty in the LED epitaxial slice structure: improve the doping content of P type layer Mg, thereby reach the effect of epitaxial wafer surface roughening.Roughened layer can be any one deck in the P type composite bed, or multilayer, or the some zones of certain one deck.The design of the inventive method has not only guaranteed higher hole concentration but also coarse surface is provided; LED surface coarsening layer changes direction with the light that those satisfy the total reflection law; Destroy light in the inner total reflection of LED, be lifted out optical efficiency, thereby improve external quantum efficiency.Because it is very big in epitaxial process, to obtain the p-GaN difficulty of high Mg doping content, the method is difficult to be realized.And change the decline that epitaxial growth parameters can cause led chip electricity and optical property.The coarse surface roughness of utilizing the method to obtain is limited, is difficult to obtain desirable light ejection efficiency and improves.
The patent No.: 200910046834; Title: can make the manufacture method of P-GaN laminar surface alligatoring of LED described; At first on Semiconductor substrate, grow n-GaN layer, quantum well layer, p-GaN layer, and the alligatoring GaN layer of non-doping successively; Adopt the alligatoring GaN layer of ICP or the said non-doping of ion dry etching then so that the coarse surface shape of the alligatoring GaN layer of said non-doping is transferred to said p-GaN layer, thereby make the alligatoring of said p-GaN laminar surface.This invention is subject to the technical bottleneck of ICP etching, destroys the electric property of LED device, and too much ICP is etched with and possibly causes the chip electric leakage, and rate of finished products descends greatly.In addition, this kind method can improve the cost of led chip product greatly, and reason is to want extraneous growth one deck to be used for the intrinsic GaN layer of alligatoring in the epitaxial process, and Another reason is that ICP etching cost is expensive, and extra etching must make the LED production cost improve.
The patent No.: 200910018772, title: utilize the PS spheres as template to make the method for light-emitting diode coarse surface.May further comprise the steps: (1) is by conventional epitaxial growth epitaxial wafer; (2) on epitaxially grown P type contact layer, lay the monofilm that one deck is closely arranged and formed by the PS ball; (3) chloride or the nitrate with tetraethyl orthosilicate, metal is precursor, and precursor, second alcohol and water are filled in the PS ball and the gap between the P type contact layer of monofilm after mixing, and room temperature leaves standstill and heating and decomposition is corresponding oxide; (4) epitaxial wafer is placed carrene, get rid of the PS ball with the carrene dissolving, the oxide that forms in the gap between PS ball and P type contact layer is retained on the P type contact layer by bowl-shape periodic arrangement structure; (5) make mask with the oxide that forms, dry etching P type contact layer forms coarse surface; (6) erode residual oxide.This invention can obtain the alligatoring LED surface of etching cycle and depth controlled.The design that the method utilizes the PS microballoon alligatoring to be carried out on the p-GaN surface through the ICP etching as template is loaded down with trivial details unusually; This process is introduced a series of corrosion and chemical process; And used this expensive auxiliary consumptive material of PS microballoon; Make the led chip cost significantly improve, do not suit to combine with the LED production technology.And the method does not also avoid the ICP etching technics for the destruction of the electric property of LED device and the raising of cost.
The patent No.: 200910018771, title: a kind of method of utilizing ITO particle mask alligatoring red light-emitting diode.Utilize the method for ITO particle mask alligatoring red light-emitting diode; May further comprise the steps: the method that (1) utilizes metal organic chemical vapor deposition by routine epitaxial growth N type contact layer, MQW active area and P type contact layer successively on substrate, substrate is the GaAs material; (2) on epitaxially grown P type contact layer with the ito thin film of electron beam transpiration one bed thickness 260nm; The epitaxial wafer that (3) will be coated with ITO immersed in the concentrated hydrochloric acid 1 minute, eroded part ITO, and that residual is granular ITO; (4) make mask with residual ITO particle, dry etching P type contact layer forms coarse surface; (5) erode residual ITO with concentrated hydrochloric acid.The method needs twice vapor deposition ITO current extending, and the normal LED technology of cost obviously improves.In addition, also do not avoid the destruction of ICP etching technics for the electric property of LED device.And the method need be used concentrated hydrochloric acid, because concentrated hydrochloric acid has severe corrosive and strong volatility, may cause certain infringement to other precision equipments and operating personnel.
The patent No.: 200710199280, title: the processing method of GaN basis light emitting diode surface coarsing.The implementation procedure of this method is: (1) is under 600 ℃~750 ℃ cryogenic conditions; P type GaN cap layer in the growing GaN based LED epitaxial slice; The dislocation of this cap layer is propagated along the direction perpendicular to epitaxial surface; Do not bend, thereby the dislocation density of this cap layer is increased and do not influence the photoelectric characteristic of device; (2) corrode LED epitaxial slice at the corrosion temperature of setting with the KOH with fusion under the time, highdensity being selected property of dislocation corrosion perpendicular to epitaxial surface in the P type GaN layer forms the etch pit of intensive regular shape at device surface.The method is had relatively high expectations for the epitaxial growth of semi-conducting material, is difficult for realizing, the control difficulty is very big.
In sum; That above technology, patent all do not possess is highly controlled, low-cost, be easy to combine with existing LED technology, nonhazardous, do not have the characteristics of destruction for the led chip electric property, does not relate to provided by the invention based on the high light ejection efficiency of laser, high controllability, low cost, large tracts of land, multiple pattern, nonhazardous, to the undamaged LED method for coarsening surface of led chip.
Summary of the invention
To the deficiency of prior art, the present invention provides a kind of SiC substrate LED large-area controllable surface coarsening lithographic method based on laser, and the alligatoring lithographic method is following:
(1) laser is selected: select optical maser wavelength less than treating that alligatoring etching epitaxial wafer material band edge absorbing wavelength, laser power density are greater than the laser of treating the threshold power density that alligatoring etching epitaxial wafer material gasifies; For the GaN sill; Select for use below the optical maser wavelength 360nm, threshold power is the laser of 300mW; For the SiC backing material, to select for use below the optical maser wavelength 410nm, threshold power is the laser of 2.5W;
(2) laser beam energy profile adjustment: regulate light spot energy and be distributed as Gaussian distribution or tack distribution, realize that the alligatoring sidewall is inclination or steep;
(3) the laser beam focus level is regulated: through the lens of regulating focus module or the height of regulating sample, regulate the focus level of laser beam at sample surfaces, realize the control of alligatoring etching live width; Use the lens focus of focal length as 100mm, minimum alligatoring etching live width is 1 micron; Obtain wideer alligatoring etching live width, then, sample surfaces is in owes burnt state through regulating height of specimen;
(4) adjusting of alligatoring etching depth: control the power density of laser through the input power of regulating laser, or regulate the number of times of alligatoring etching, realize the adjusting of alligatoring etching depth, alligatoring etching depth scope is that 10nm is to deeply unlimited; When the GaN epitaxial loayer was carried out the alligatoring etching, at wavelength 355nm, under laser output power 400mW, 10 microns conditions of spot diameter, the degree of depth of an alligatoring etching was 150nm; When the SiC substrate was carried out the alligatoring etching, at wavelength 355nm, under the condition that 2.5W laser power, spot diameter are 10 microns, an alligatoring etching depth was 200nm;
(5) realization of different alligatoring etching figures: the control to SiC substrate and GaN epitaxial loayer alligatoring etching pattern realizes through regulating high-speed vibrating mirror or high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform: with the alligatoring etching figure importing high-speed vibrating mirror that designs or the Control Software of high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform, the alligatoring etching device carries out the alligatoring etching according to the figure that imports; Minimum resolution through high-speed vibrating mirror alligatoring etching figure is 10 microns, uses high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform minimum resolution and can reach 1 micron;
(6) clean: after the alligatoring etching is accomplished, at room temperature use and cleaned the residual Ga of sample surfaces in the ultrasonic 1-2 of watery hydrochloric acid minute
2O
3Or, obtain the LED of surface coarsening with the ultrasonic 1-2 of the alkali lye minute residual Si oxide of cleaning.
Described alligatoring lithographic method is applicable to the alligatoring etching of all each layer of SiC substrate led chip epitaxial structures of alligatoring etching, SiC substrate.
Described alligatoring lithographic method is applicable to the alligatoring etching of the led chip and the epitaxial wafer of formal dress, upside-down mounting, vertical process, thin-film technique.
A kind of device of realizing the described SiC substrate LED large-area controllable surface coarsening lithographic method based on laser of claim 1 is made up of the computer of power supply module, laser module, light beam shaping module, light beam focus module, high-speed vibrating mirror or high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform, up-down sample stage and control high-speed vibrating mirror or high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform; Wherein light beam shaping module and the position of light beam focus module in light path can exchange; High-speed vibrating mirror is connected with computer with high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform.
Superiority of the present invention
1) the SiC substrate LED surface coarsening lithographic technique that the present invention is based on laser is selected the etching alligatoring etching of suitable laser module applicable to all semi-conducting materials; To being required extremely low by the character of alligatoring etching material; The effective semi-conducting materials of the extremely difficult corrosion of these two kinds of alligatoring p-GaN and SiC substrates particularly; Promote the light extraction efficiency of blue-ray LED greatly, simplified production technology.
2) it is cheap to the present invention is based on the SiC substrate LED surface coarsening lithographic technique equipment and the use cost of laser.At first avoid the use of this expensive traditional lithographic method of ICP, secondly the method has the characteristics of an alligatoring etching, need not technologies such as exposure, mask and can alligatoring etch multiple figure.
3) owing to avoided use ICP etching, for the electrical properties not damaged of led chip, and laser irradiation can effectively activate the Mg ion among the p-GaN, improves the conductive capability of p-GaN, thereby makes the electric current injection efficiency of LED device be improved.
4) the alligatoring etching speed is fast.With period pitch is that 20 microns donut figure is an example, 2 inches GaN bases of alligatoring etching a slice forward LED epitaxial wafer only need be about 15-20 second.Exceed the alligatoring etching speed several times of all coarsening techniques at present.
5) alligatoring etching area is big.Parameter through changing Control Software is perhaps regulated light path, can easily realize large scale sample alligatoring etching.
6) alligatoring alligatoring etching figure is versatile and flexible.Control Software through high-speed vibrating mirror or high accuracy electricity driving displacement sample stage can realize the various alligatoring etching figures of design voluntarily.
7) the etching depth controllability is high.Because the power output of laser module can be carried out High Accuracy Control through the power output of regulating power supply, so the control precision of the etching depth of sample can reach 10nm.
8) alligatoring etched line width, resolution is high.The etching live width of the method can be controlled through the focus level of regulating laser beam, can laser beam be focused in 1 micron the scope through the focusing technology minimum, and on behalf of the etching resolution of the method, this just to reach 1 micron precision.
9) alligatoring is effective.Led chip light extraction efficiency through the method alligatoring can double above.
Description of drawings
Fig. 1 is for using the structural representation of high-speed vibrating mirror configuration among the present invention.
Fig. 2 uses the structural representation of high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform configuration for the present invention.
Wherein, 1, laser module, 2, the laser beam shaping module, 3, the laser beam focus module, 4, speculum, 5, the high-speed vibrating mirror module, 6, treat alligatoring etching LED epitaxial wafer, 7, the up-down sample stage, 8, high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform.
Embodiment
Embodiment 1:
With 2 inches substrate GaN-based forward LED epitaxial wafers of SiC is that example is explained implementation method of the present invention, and step is following:
(1) GaN base forward LED epitaxial wafer is followed successively by the SiC substrate, resilient coating GaN, intrinsic GaN layer, n-GaN limiting layer, the active luminous zone of MQW, p-GaN limiting layer from the bottom to the structure at top.
(2) carry out the alligatoring etching at the p-GaN limiting layer, the thickness of p-GaN limiting layer is about 200nm.
(3) open ultraviolet 355nm laser, make its laser output be in holding state.
(4) regulating the laser beam shaping module distributes to obtain the required beam energy of alligatoring etching.
(5) GaN base forward LED epitaxial wafer is fixed on the center of up-down sample stage, regulates the up-down sample stage and make ultraviolet 355nm laser beam be positioned at the center of epitaxial wafer, and regulate the sample stage height and guarantee that laser beam rationally focuses on the epitaxial wafer surface.
(6) required alligatoring etching figure is imported to the high-speed vibrating mirror Control Software, for example ectonexine is 20 microns donut structure at interval, and alligatoring etching duty ratio is 50%, and alligatoring etching area is for covering whole 2 inches GaN base forward LED epitaxial wafers.
(7) control the power output of ultraviolet 355nm laser module through the power output of regulating power supply module, thereby realize the degree of depth of control alligatoring etching.Because the thickness of p-GaN limiting layer is 200nm, for the hole injection effect of not destroying the active luminous zone of MQW and guaranteeing p-GaN, the alligatoring etching depth is less than 150nm, and then the power of laser should be controlled at 350mW.
(8) the computer terminal input in the control high-speed vibrating mirror begins the order of alligatoring etching, and then the output of ultraviolet 355nm laser module reaches the 300mW of setting, and high-speed vibrating mirror begins to begin to carry out the alligatoring etching according to the alligatoring etching figure of input, and the alligatoring etching speed is 3cm
2/ S, 2 inches GaN base forward LED epitaxial wafer alligatoring of full wafer etching finishes and needs 15-20 second.
(9) working concentration is the Ga that the epitaxial wafer surface was removed in 20% watery hydrochloric acid ultrasonic cleaning in 2 minutes
2O
3Residual, and use acetone, ethanol etc. to clean epitaxial wafer.
(10) 2 inches GaN base forward LED epitaxial wafers after the alligatoring etching are proceeded normal electrode manufacture craft.
Embodiment 2:
With 2 inches substrate GaN-based vertical process LED epitaxial wafers of SiC is that example is explained implementation method of the present invention, (4), (5), (9), (10) step is identical with embodiment 1, and difference is:
(1) GaN base vertical process LED epitaxial wafer is followed successively by the SiC substrate, p-GaN limiting layer, the active luminous zone of MQW, n-GaN limiting layer, intrinsic GaN layer from the bottom to the structure at top.
(2) carry out the alligatoring etching at intrinsic GaN layer, the thickness of intrinsic GaN layer is about 1.5 microns.
(3) open ultraviolet 355nm laser, make its laser output be in holding state.
(6) required alligatoring etching figure is imported to high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform Control Software; For example the cycle is 15 microns the structure of vertical stripes in length and breadth; Alligatoring etching duty ratio is 50%, and alligatoring etching area is for covering whole 2 inches GaN base vertical process LED epitaxial wafers.
(7) control the power output of ultraviolet 355nm laser module through the power output of regulating power supply module, thereby realize the degree of depth of control alligatoring etching.Because the thickness of intrinsic GaN layer is 1.5 microns, for the hole injection effect of not destroying the active luminous zone of MQW and guaranteeing n-GaN, the alligatoring etching depth is less than 1.2 microns, and then the power of laser should be controlled at 1W.
(8) the computer terminal input at control high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform begins the order of alligatoring etching; Then the output of ultraviolet 355nm laser module reaches the 1.5W of setting; High-speed vibrating mirror begins to begin to carry out the alligatoring etching according to the alligatoring etching figure of input, and the alligatoring etching speed is 1cm
2/ S, 2 inches GaN base vertical process LED epitaxial wafer alligatoring of full wafer etching finishes and needs 30-45 second.
Embodiment 3:
With 2 inches SiC substrate GaN-based LED epitaxial wafers is that example is explained implementation method of the present invention, (4), (5), (9), (10) step is identical with embodiment 1, and difference is:
(1) the LED epitaxial wafer is followed successively by the SiC substrate, n-GaN limiting layer, the active luminous zone of MQW, p-GaN limiting layer from the bottom to the structure at top.
(2) carry out alligatoring alligatoring etching at the SiC substrate layer.
(3) open the 355nm laser, make its laser output be in holding state.
(6) required alligatoring etching figure is imported to the high-speed vibrating mirror Control Software, for example ectonexine is 20 microns donut structure at interval, and alligatoring etching duty ratio is 50%, and alligatoring etching area is for covering whole 2 inches SiC substrates.
(7) control the power output of 355nm laser module through the power output of regulating power supply module, thereby realize the degree of depth of control alligatoring etching.The alligatoring etching depth is less than 2 microns, and then the power of 355nm laser should be controlled at 5W.
(8) the computer terminal input in the control high-speed vibrating mirror begins the order of alligatoring etching, and then the output of 355nm laser module reaches the 5W of setting, and high-speed vibrating mirror begins to begin to carry out the alligatoring etching according to the alligatoring etching figure of input, and the alligatoring etching speed is 3cm
2/ S, full wafer 2 inches SiC substrates alligatoring etching finishes needs 15-20 second.
Claims (2)
1. based on the SiC substrate LED large-area controllable surface coarsening lithographic method of laser, it is characterized in that the alligatoring lithographic method is following:
(1) laser is selected: for the SiC backing material, select for use below the optical maser wavelength 410nm, threshold power is the laser of 2.5W;
(2) laser beam energy profile adjustment: regulate light spot energy and be distributed as Gaussian distribution or tack distribution, realize that the alligatoring sidewall is inclination or steep;
(3) the laser beam focus level is regulated: through the lens of regulating focus module or the height of regulating the SiC substrate, regulate the focus level of laser beam at the SiC substrate surface, realize the control of alligatoring etching live width; Use the lens focus of focal length as 100mm, minimum alligatoring etching live width is 1 micron; Obtain wideer alligatoring etching live width, then, the SiC substrate surface is in owes burnt state through regulating the SiC substrate height;
(4) adjusting of alligatoring etching depth: control the power density of laser through the input power of regulating laser, or regulate the number of times of alligatoring etching, realize the adjusting of alligatoring etching depth, alligatoring etching depth scope is that 10nm is to deeply unlimited; When the SiC substrate was carried out the alligatoring etching, at wavelength 355nm, under the condition that 2.5W laser power, spot diameter are 10 microns, an alligatoring etching depth was 200nm;
(5) realization of different alligatoring etching figures: the control to SiC substrate alligatoring etching pattern realizes through regulating high-speed vibrating mirror or high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform: with the alligatoring etching figure importing high-speed vibrating mirror that designs or the Control Software of high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform, the alligatoring etching device carries out the alligatoring etching according to the figure that imports; Minimum resolution through high-speed vibrating mirror alligatoring etching figure is 10 microns, uses high accuracy electricity driving displacement platform minimum resolution and can reach 1 micron;
(6) clean: after the alligatoring etching is accomplished, at room temperature use and cleaned the residual Ga of SiC substrate surface in the ultrasonic 1-2 of watery hydrochloric acid minute
2O
3Or, obtain the LED of surface coarsening with the ultrasonic 1-2 of the alkali lye minute residual Si oxide of cleaning.
2. the SiC substrate LED large-area controllable surface coarsening lithographic method based on laser as claimed in claim 1; It is characterized in that; Described alligatoring lithographic method is applicable to the alligatoring etching of the led chip of SiC substrate formal dress, upside-down mounting, vertical process, thin-film technique.
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