WO2024097417A1 - Encapsulated perovskite modules and solar cells containing the same - Google Patents

Encapsulated perovskite modules and solar cells containing the same Download PDF

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Publication number
WO2024097417A1
WO2024097417A1 PCT/US2023/036807 US2023036807W WO2024097417A1 WO 2024097417 A1 WO2024097417 A1 WO 2024097417A1 US 2023036807 W US2023036807 W US 2023036807W WO 2024097417 A1 WO2024097417 A1 WO 2024097417A1
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layer
perovskite
solar cell
solar module
layers
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PCT/US2023/036807
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French (fr)
Inventor
Chenyu Chou
Jing-shun HUANG
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Caelux Corporation
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Publication of WO2024097417A1 publication Critical patent/WO2024097417A1/en

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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
    • H01L31/00—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof
    • H01L31/02—Details
    • H01L31/0216—Coatings
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
    • H01L31/00—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof
    • H01L31/04—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof adapted as photovoltaic [PV] conversion devices
    • H01L31/042—PV modules or arrays of single PV cells
    • H01L31/048—Encapsulation of modules
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
    • H01L31/00—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof
    • H01L31/04—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof adapted as photovoltaic [PV] conversion devices
    • H01L31/042—PV modules or arrays of single PV cells
    • H01L31/048—Encapsulation of modules
    • H01L31/049—Protective back sheets
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E10/00—Energy generation through renewable energy sources
    • Y02E10/50—Photovoltaic [PV] energy
    • Y02E10/549—Organic PV cells

Definitions

  • the invention features are in the field of solar cells, such as perovskite solar cells (PVSC) and tandem solar cells.
  • solar cells also referred to as photovoltaic cells, are optoelectronic devices that convert light into electricity using the photovoltaic effect. Silicon solar cells are capable of converting light within a wavelength range of about 300 nanometers (“nm”) to 1100 nm into electricity. However, the conversion efficiency of silicon solar cells decreases appreciably as the wavelength of light decreases from 1100 nm.
  • a tandem solar cell has two individual solar cells stacked on top of one another, where a top cell absorbs incident light and a bottom cell absorbs residual light transmitted through the top cell.
  • the bottom cell can be a silicon solar cell, and the top cell can be composed of a different material.
  • the top cell can have a higher band gap than the silicon solar cell. Accordingly, the top cell can be capable of efficiently converting shorter wavelengths of light to electricity.
  • the top cell can be transparent to longer wavelengths of light, which can allow the underlying silicon solar cell to absorb and convert such longer wavelengths of light to electricity.
  • the tandem solar cell can generate electricity over a wider wavelength range of light and with a higher conversion efficiency than either cell individually.
  • solar cells are sensitive to the environment, including ambient ultraviolet (UV) light, water exposure, high temperatures, and other environmental effects which can degrade performance of the solar cells if not mitigated.
  • UV ambient ultraviolet
  • the service life of an encapsulant meant to protect a solar cell is often compromised by similar phenomena, such as interactions between moisture absorption, oxygen, and UV radiation from sunlight.
  • poor encapsulants can be a bottleneck for extended lifecycles and conversion efficiencies. Accordingly, a need exists for improved systems, materials, and methods for protecting and encapsulating solar cells.
  • a UV curable compound as described herein refers to a material that can be cured (e.g., solidified) when exposed to UV light of a suitable intensity.
  • Photopolymers such as light-activated resins and acrylate-based compositions, are types of UV curable compounds that can be particularly useful in solar cell applications.
  • a photopolymer typically includes multifunctional monomers, oligomers, or both that polymerize in the presence of UV light, increasing the viscosity of the photopolymer as a result.
  • a photopolymer may also be doped with one or more photoinitators (e.g., free radical or ionic photoinitators) that create reactive species when exposed to UV light, activating the polymerization process during curing.
  • a UV curable compound can act as an adhesive, coating, and encapsulant for various solar module configurations, such as silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules, and the like.
  • the UV curable compound generally provides surface passivation and enhanced throughput for the solar modules, among other features.
  • a tandem silicon-perovskite solar module as described herein is a solar module composed of two solar modules stacked on each other.
  • the solar modules include a silicon solar cell and a perovskite solar cell, with the perovskite solar cell usually stacked on top of the silicon solar cell. That is, when installed, sunlight is first incident on the perovskite solar cell.
  • the perovskite solar cell generally has a higher bandgap than the silicon solar cell.
  • the perovskite solar cell can have a bandgap of about 1.7 electron volts (“eV”) while the silicon solar cell has a bandgap of about 1.1 eV. Accordingly, the perovskite solar cell is capable of efficiently converting shorter wavelengths of light to electricity.
  • the perovskite solar cell can be transparent to longer wavelengths of light, which allows the underlying silicon solar cell to absorb and convert such longer wavelengths of light to electricity.
  • the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell are capable of efficiently converting a wider spectrum of light to electricity than a single solar cell, e.g., Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 there may be less thermalization loss in a tandem solar module than in a single solar module resulting in a higher full spectrum efficiency.
  • the addition of perovskite solar cells can improve the resultant solar modules by decreasing cost, improving performance per weight of the module, improve overall performance of the module, and the like.
  • the silicon solar cell can be a monocrystalline or multi-crystalline silicon solar cell.
  • the silicon solar cell can be a component of a conventional solar panel.
  • the solar panel may have a back sheet on which the silicon solar cell is disposed.
  • the perovskite solar cell can be deposited on a bottom surface of the top glass sheet. This differs from the construction of conventional tandem solar modules in which a perovskite cell is disposed directly on top of a silicon wafer. Depositing the perovskite solar cell on the bottom surface of the top glass sheet allows manufacturers to incorporate perovskite solar cells into their conventional silicon solar panels with no re-tooling or process changes. Instead, manufacturers can merely substitute a conventional glass sheet with the perovskite glass sheet.
  • a UV curable compound can be deposited on a top surface of the top glass sheet, a bottom surface of the perovskite solar cell, or both.
  • the UV curable compound can be applied to the perovskite glass sheet and subsequently cured with UV light before or after the perovskite solar cell is incorporated into the tandem solar module. UV cured layers can provide improved UV protection, encapsulation, passivation, and throughput for the tandem module.
  • the UV curable compound may also be deposited on a top surface of the perovskite solar cell, between the mating surfaces of the perovskite solar cell and the top glass sheet.
  • the perovskite solar cell includes a first transparent conducting oxide (“TCO”) layer which can be deposited on the top glass sheet, a hole transport layer (“HTL”) deposited on the first TCO layer, a perovskite layer deposited on the HTL, an electron transport layer (“ETL”) deposited on the perovskite layer, and a second TCO layer deposited on the ETL.
  • TCO transparent conducting oxide
  • HTL hole transport layer
  • ETL electron transport layer
  • the first and second TCO layers can serve as terminals for the perovskite solar cell.
  • the ETL and HTL facilitate electron and hole transport, respectively, while inhibiting hole and electron transport, respectively.
  • the perovskite layer can absorb light to generate charge Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 carriers, which results in a voltage and current flow across the terminals of the perovskite solar cell.
  • the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell can be electrically isolated from each other, and each cell can have its own terminals. That is, the tandem solar module can be a 4-terminal module.
  • the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell can be connected in series or parallel by connecting the terminals in the appropriate manner. In the case of a series connection, the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell can be current-matched.
  • the disclosure features a solar module.
  • the solar module includes: a substance including a compound curable by ultraviolet light; and a number of layers including: a first layer of the substance; a first substrate layer including glass; and a perovskite solar cell having a first band gap, the perovskite solar cell between the first layer of the substance and the first substrate layer.
  • the compound can be a resin or an acrylate-based composition.
  • the substance can be composed of the compound.
  • the substance can further include an encapsulant.
  • Implementations of the solar module can include one or more of the following features and/or features of other aspects.
  • the solar module can include an edge seal surrounding one or more of the layers.
  • the edge seal can include the substance.
  • the edge seal is composed of the substance.
  • the layers can further include a second layer of the substance, the first substrate layer between the second layer of the substance and the perovskite solar cell.
  • the layers can further include a second substrate layer including glass or a back sheet, the second substrate layer being an outermost layer of the layers.
  • the layers can further include an encapsulant layer between the first layer of the substance and the second substrate layer.
  • the perovskite solar cell can include a photoactive perovskite layer.
  • the perovskite solar cell can further include a first transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer and a second TCO layer, the photoactive perovskite layer between the first and second TCO layers.
  • the first and second TCO layers can be terminals of the perovskite solar cell.
  • the perovskite solar cell can include a number of segments separated by sets of scribe lines. Each Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 set of scribe lines can include P1, P2, and P3 scribe lines.
  • the first layer of the substance can fill each set of scribe lines.
  • the perovskite solar cell can further include a hole transport layer (HTL), the HTL between the first TCO layer and the photoactive perovskite layer.
  • the perovskite solar cell can further include an electron transport layer (ETL), the ETL between the second TCO layer and the photoactive perovskite layer.
  • the first bandgap can be in a range from 1.5 electron volts (eV) to 1.9 eV.
  • the layers can further include a silicon solar cell having a second band gap different from the first band gap, the first layer of the substance between the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell.
  • the substance can have a refractive index of 1.5 or more.
  • the substance can be transparent to visible light.
  • the substance can absorb ultraviolet light.
  • the solar module can have a transmission efficiency less than 100 % for light having wavelengths of 350 nanometers (nm) or less.
  • Other aspects of the present disclosure provide methods of fabricating and manufacturing the devices and components described above and elsewhere in this disclosure.
  • the disclosed examples of ultraviolet (UV) curable encapsulations can improve the reliability of solar cells, such as extending the lifetime of a solar cell, maintaining a conversion efficiency of the solar cell above a threshold amount, or both.
  • UV curable compounds that can be used for UV curable encapsulations include photopolymers such as light-activated resins and acrylate-based compositions that are curable (e.g., polymerizable) with UV light.
  • Resins are reactive polymers that can be useful in device fabrication and surface finishing.
  • resins can act as an adhesive to bind two surfaces, passivate surfaces, and provide a protective coating to surfaces.
  • Uncured resins usually exist in a liquid form that can facilitate simplified application of the resin during various manufacturing steps.
  • Resin curing e.g., UV curing
  • Resins can be cured to a solid form or an intermediate form between a liquid and a solid, such as a highly viscous liquid form or a gel form.
  • Acrylates are monomers and/or oligomers that can rapidly polymerize into polyacrylate polymers.
  • UV curable compounds can have a number of advantages over compounds that are cured using other techniques, particularly for solar cell applications (e.g., tandem solar Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 cells). For instance, UV curable compounds are curable with UV light while traditional epoxy resins, for example, generally involve an exothermic or endothermic curing process. Exothermic and endothermic curing can involve (or produce) sufficient heat to thermally degrade solar cells and other components of a solar module.
  • UV curable compounds can be single component adhesives that can be applied to a solar cell (e.g., at low viscosity) and then cured (e.g., solidified) once it has been applied. UV curable compounds can also be combined into a mixture with one or more additives (e.g., other encapsulants) to facilitate UV curing and improved performance of the mixture.
  • co-reactants e.g., hardeners or curatives
  • UV curable compounds can have significantly shorter curing times compared to conventional epoxy resins (e.g., seconds or minutes versus hours or days), while also providing UV protection by reflecting and/or absorbing UV light. Since solar cell lifecycles are severely compromised by environmental and UV degradation, these aforementioned features make UV curable compounds advantageous for industrial scale solar cell manufacturing, particularly for surface binding, surface passivation, encapsulation, and sealing. [0029] UV curable compounds can be especially effective in tandem solar cells that involve the hybridization of two disparate solar cells. In tandem silicon-perovskite solar cells, optical losses at the interface between a perovskite solar cell and a silicon solar cell, as well as recombination losses in any of the layers of the two cells, can result in a diminished conversion efficiency.
  • a UV cured layer sandwiched between the perovskite cell and the silicon cell can significantly reduce optical losses and increase conversion efficiency.
  • the UV cured layer can increase light transmission of useful parts of the spectrum (e.g., visible and infrared) that can be effectively converted into electricity by the solar cells.
  • UV cured layers can also improve surface passivation on both sides of the perovskite solar cell to reduce the likelihood of the perovskite solar cell reacting with its surroundings.
  • a UV cured layer can have a relatively high refractive index (e.g., about 1.5 or more).
  • the UV cured layer When the UV cured layer is laminated between a perovskite solar cell and a silicon solar cell in a tandem cell, the UV cured layer can minimize steep changes in refractive indices between the two cells. This increases light transmission through the perovskite solar cell to the silicon solar cell by reducing light reflections at their interfaces. Increased light throughput can lead to higher efficiencies in converting photons into electrical energy.
  • the UV cured layer improves the reliability of one or both of the cells by Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 relieving damage from UV exposure, improving structural stability, and passivating their surfaces.
  • UV cured layers can be deposited in multiple locations within a perovskite solar module, silicon solar module, or tandem silicon-perovskite solar module.
  • UV cured layers can be disposed on a substrate side of a solar cell, an electrode side, between the two cells of a tandem module, laminated with a conventional encapsulant, or combinations thereof.
  • a UV curable compound can also fully encapsulate multiple layers of a solar module, such as a solar cell of the module and a substrate the solar cell is deposited on.
  • UV curable compounds can be integrated into a production level solution, where a standard encapsulant in solar panel encapsulation and packaging functions as the protective layer and a UV curable compound provides binding, surface passivation, and UV protection.
  • UV curable compounds can be in liquid form, solid form, or combinations of both if multiple layers of UV curable compound are utilized.
  • examples of UV curable encapsulations are described with respect to perovskite solar modules, silicon solar modules, and tandem perovskite-silicon solar modules, the UV curable encapsulations are not limited to such.
  • the UV curable encapsulations described herein can be utilized in any solar cell application to improve solar cell performance and mitigate environmental degradation, UV light degradation, and other forms of degradation.
  • FIG.1A schematically illustrates a tandem, 4-terminal, silicon-perovskite solar cell module including multiple ultraviolet (UV) cured layers, according to an embodiment.
  • FIG.1B schematically illustrates a perovskite solar cell, according to an embodiment.
  • FIG.2 schematically illustrates a perovskite solar module having a UV cured layer protecting scribe lines, according to an embodiment.
  • FIG.3 is a flow chart of a fabrication process for forming a perovskite photovoltaic, according to an embodiment.
  • FIG.4 is a flowchart of operation 310 of FIG.3, according to an embodiment.
  • FIG.5 is a flowchart of operation 340 of FIG.3, according to an embodiment.
  • FIG.6 is a flow chart of operation 350 of FIG.3, according to an embodiment.
  • FIG.7 is a flow chart of operation 360 of FIG.3, according to an embodiment.
  • FIGs.8A-8D schematically illustrate various perovskite solar modules with different UV curable encapsulations, according to some embodiments.
  • FIG.9A schematically illustrates a UV cured layer disposed on a glass substrate incident with UV light, according to an embodiment.
  • FIG.9B is a graph illustrating transmission efficiency of a perovskite solar cell as a function of wavelength, according to an embodiment.
  • FIGs.10A and 10B feature photographs of perovskite solar modules after a stress test, without and with a UV cured layer respectively, according to some embodiments.
  • FIGs.11A and 11B are graphs illustrating performance of perovskite solar modules during stress tests at 75 °C, without and with a UV cured layer respectively, according to some embodiments.
  • FIGs.12A-12C are graphs illustrating performance of various perovskite solar modules during extended 85 °C at 85% relative humidity (85°C/85%) reliability tests, according to some embodiments.
  • FIG.13 is a flow chart of a fabrication process for forming a perovskite layer, according to an embodiment.
  • FIG.14 is a flow chart of a process for manufacturing a tandem solar module, according to an embodiment.
  • FIG.15 shows a computer system that is programmed or otherwise configured to implement methods provided herein, according to an embodiment.
  • no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values
  • the term “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of numerical values.
  • less than or equal to 3, 2, or 1 is equivalent to less than or equal to 3, less than or equal to 2, or less than or equal to 1.
  • the term “solar cell,” as used herein, generally refers to a device that uses the photovoltaic effect to generate electricity from light.
  • the term “tandem,” as used herein, refers to a solar module with two solar cells that are stacked on top of one another.
  • the term “4-terminal,” as used herein, refers to a tandem solar module in which the top and bottom solar cells each have two accessible terminals.
  • the term “perovskite,” as used herein, generally refers to a material with a crystal structure similar to calcium titanium oxide and one that is suitable for use in perovskite solar cells.
  • the general chemical forum for a perovskite material is ABX3.
  • perovskite materials include methylammonium lead trihalide (i.e., CEENHaPbX 3 , where X is a halogen ion such as iodide, bromide, or chloride) and formamidinium lead trihalide (i.e., EENCElNEhPbX 3 , where X is a halogen ion such as iodide, bromide, or chloride).
  • CEENHaPbX 3 where X is a halogen ion such as iodide, bromide, or chloride
  • formamidinium lead trihalide i.e., EENCElNEhPbX 3 , where X is a halogen ion such as iodide, bromide, or chloride.
  • the term “monocrystalline silicon,” as used herein, generally refers to silicon with a crystal structure that is homogenous throughout the material. The orientation, lattice parameters, and electronic properties of mono
  • Monocrystalline silicon may be doped with phosphorus or boron, for example, to make the silicon n-type or p-type respectively.
  • polycrystalline silicon generally refers to silicon with an irregular grain structure.
  • passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) solar cell generally refer to a solar cell with an extra dielectric layer on the rear-side of the solar cell. This dielectric layer may act to reflect unabsorbed light back to the solar cell for a second absorption attempt, and may additionally passivate the rear surface of the solar cell, increasing the solar cell’s efficiency.
  • HIT solar cell heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer solar cell (HIT) solar cell
  • HIT solar cell generally refer to a solar cell that is composed of a monocrystalline silicon wafer surrounded by ultra-thin amorphous silicon layers. One amorphous silicon layer may be n- doped, while the other may be p-doped.
  • IBC interdigitated back contact cell
  • An IBC can include a high-quality absorber material configured to permit carrier migration over a long distance.
  • bandgap and “band gap,” as used herein, generally refer to the energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band in a material.
  • An ETL can be made of one or more n-type layers. The one or more n-type layers can include an n-type exciton blocking layer.
  • the n-type exciton blocking layer can have a wider band gap than the photoactive layer of the solar cell (e.g., the perovskite layer) but a conduction band that is closely matched to the conduction band of the photoactive layer. This allows electrons to easily pass from the photoactive layer to the ETL.
  • the n-type layer can be a metal oxide, a metal sulfide, a metal selenide, a metal telluride, amorphous silicon, an n-type group IV semiconductor (e.g., germanium), an n-type group III-V semiconductor (e.g., gallium arsenide), an n-type group II- VI semiconductor (e.g., cadmium selenide), an n-type group I- VII semiconductor (e.g., cuprous chloride), an n- Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 type group IV-VI semiconductor (e.g., lead selenide), an n-type group V-VI semiconductor (e.g., bismuth telluride), or an n-type group II-V semiconductor (e.g., cadmium arsenide), any of which can be doped (e.g., with phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony) or undoped.
  • an n-type group IV semiconductor e
  • the metal oxide can be an oxide of titanium, tin, zinc, niobium, tantalum, tungsten, indium, gallium, neodymium, palladium, cadmium, or an oxide of a mixture of two or more of such metals.
  • the metal sulfide can be a sulfide of cadmium, tin, copper, zinc or a sulfide of a mixture of two or more of such metals.
  • the metal selenide can be a selenide of cadmium, zinc, indium, gallium or a selenide of a mixture of two or more of such metals.
  • the metal telluride can be a telluride of cadmium, zinc, cadmium or tin, or a telluride of a mixture of two or more of said metals.
  • n-type materials can be employed, including organic and polymeric electron transporting materials, and electrolytes. Suitable examples include, but are not limited to, a fullerene or a fullerene derivative (e.g., phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester, C60, etc.) or an organic electron transporting material including perylene or a derivative thereof.
  • HTL hole transport layer
  • An HTL can be made of one or more p-type layers.
  • the one or more p-type layers can include a p-type exciton blocking layer.
  • the p-type exciton blocking layer generally has a valence band that is closely matched to the valence band of the photoactive layer (e.g., the perovskite layer) of the solar cell. This allows holes to easily pass from the photoactive layer to the HTL.
  • the p-type layer can be made of a molecular hole transporter, a polymeric hole transporter, or a copolymer hole transporter.
  • the p-type layer can be one or more of the following: nickel oxide, thiophenyl, phenelenyl, dithiazolyl, benzothiazolyl, diketopyrrolopyrrolyl, ethoxydithiophenyl, amino, triphenyl amino, carbozolyl, ethylene dioxythiophenyl, dioxythiophenyl, or fluorenyl.
  • the p-type layer can include spiro-OMeTAD (2,2',7,7'-tetrakis-(N,N-di-p-methoxyphenylamine)-9,9'- spirobifluorene)), P3HT (poly(3-hexylthiophene)), PCPDTBT (Poly[2,l,3-benzothiadiazole- 4,7- diyl[4,4-bis(2-ethylhexyl)-4H-cyclopenta[2,l-b:3,4-b']dithiophene-2,6-diyl]]), PVK (poly(N- vinylcarbazole)), poly(3 -hexylthiophene), poly[N,N-diphenyl-4- methoxyphenylamine-4',4"- diyl], sexithiophene, 9,10-bis(phenylethynyl)anthracene, 5,12-
  • UV curable compound generally refers to a material that can be cured under exposure to UV light of a suitable intensity.
  • UV curable compounds include photopolymers such as resins, acrylate-based compositions, and the like, that are curable (e.g., polymerizable) by UV light.
  • a UV curable compound may include one or more photoinitators (e.g., free radical or ionic photoinitators) to activate curing when exposed to UV light. Implementations also include mixtures of such UV curable compounds.
  • a substance or mixture suitable for UV curable encapsulations can include one or more UV curable compounds and one or more additives (e.g., other encapsulants) in various concentrations.
  • additives include resins (e.g., epoxy resin, light-curing epoxy resin, and optically clear resin (OCR)), optically clear adhesive (OCA), silicone, cyclized perfluoro-polymer, ethylene-vinyl-acetate (EVA), ethylene methyl acrylate (EMA), thermoplastic polyolefin (TPO), thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), thermoplastic elastomer (TPE), polyvinyl butyral (PVB), polyisobutylene (PIB), polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), acrylic compounds (e.g., poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), paraffin, and thermal cure epoxy resin), organic-inorganic hybrid materials (ORMOCERs (ORM)) and other organic materials.
  • resins e.g., epoxy resin,
  • FIG.1A schematically illustrates a tandem, 4-terminal, silicon-perovskite solar module 100.
  • the solar module 100 includes a first UV cured layer 205-1, a top glass sheet 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV cured layer 205-2, a silicon solar cell 140, and a back sheet 145.
  • a UV cured layer 205 is formed by curing a layer of a substance that includes a UV curable compound, which can occur at one or more steps in a manufacturing process. Examples of such processes are described in more detail elsewhere herein.
  • the first UV cured layer 205-1 is disposed on a top surface of the top glass sheet 105 and can inhibit transmission of UV light through the solar module 100 by absorbing Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 and/or reflecting UV light.
  • the UV cured layer 205-1 can protect the underlying layers of the solar module 100 from UV light degradation, including the perovskite solar cell 240, the silicon solar cell 140, or both.
  • the first UV cured layer 205-1 (or an additional UV cured layer) can be disposed on a bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 which can passivate a top surface of the perovskite solar cell 240.
  • the top glass sheet 105 in combination with the first UV cured layer 205-1, can protect underlying layers of the solar module 100 from dust and moisture.
  • the top glass sheet 105, and the solar module 100 as a whole, can have a form factor that corresponds to a conventional silicon solar panel.
  • the top glass sheet 105 can have a form factor that corresponds to a 32-cell, 36-cell, 48-cell, 60-cell, 72-cell, 96-cell, or 144-cell silicon solar panel.
  • the top glass sheet 105 can have a thickness of at least about 2.0 millimeters (mm), 2.5 mm, 3.0 mm, 3.5 mm, 4.0 mm, 4.5 mm, 5.0 mm, or more.
  • the top glass sheet 105 can have a thickness of at most about 5.0 mm, 4.5 mm, 4.0 mm, 3.5 mm, 3.0 mm, 2.5 mm, 2.0 mm, or less.
  • the top glass sheet 105 may be transparent so as to allow light to access the underlying solar cells.
  • the top surface of the top glass sheet 105 may be covered with magnesium fluoride (MgF2) and/or polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) (e.g., 1:10 alumina PDMS, textured 1:50 alumina PDMS, or textured PDMS), which generally improves light trapping and refractive index matching.
  • MgF2 magnesium fluoride
  • PDMS polydimethyl siloxane
  • FIG.1B schematically illustrates the perovskite solar cell 240 of the solar module 100 depicted in FIG.1A.
  • the perovskite solar cell 240 includes a first transparent conducting oxide (TCO) layer 110, a hole transport layer (HTL) 115, a perovskite layer 120, an electron transport layer (ETL) 125, and a second TCO layer 130.
  • TCO transparent conducting oxide
  • HTL hole transport layer
  • ETL electron transport layer
  • the perovskite solar cell 240 can be disposed on the bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 through fabrication methods that are described in FIGs.3-7. Further details relating to such manufacturing methods are described in Int’l. Appl. No. PCT/US2021/051465, filed September 22, 2021, and titled Methods and Devices for Integrated Tandem Solar Module Fabrication, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0077] The perovskite solar cell 240 generally has a higher bandgap than the silicon solar cell 140.
  • the perovskite solar cell 240 can have a bandgap of about 1.30 electron volts (“eV”) to 2.10 eV, or greater.
  • the silicon solar cell 140 can have a bandgap of about 1.1 eV.
  • the perovskite solar cell 240 is capable of efficiently converting shorter wavelengths of light to electricity compared to the silicon solar cell 140.
  • the perovskite solar cell 240 can be transparent to longer wavelengths of light, which allows the underlying silicon solar cell 140 to absorb and convert such longer wavelengths of light to electricity. Together, the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be capable of efficiently converting a wider spectrum of light to electricity than a single solar cell.
  • the first TCO layer 110 can be disposed directly on the top glass sheet 105. Depositing the first TCO layer 110 directly on the top glass sheet 105 can prevent damage to the HTL 115 and the perovskite layer 120.
  • the first TCO layer 110 can serve as the positive terminal or cathode of the perovskite solar cell 240.
  • the first TCO layer 110 can have a thickness of at least about 100 nanometers (nm), 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, or more.
  • the first TCO layer 110 may have a thickness of at most about 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, or less.
  • the first TCO layer 110 can be made of indium tin oxide (ITO).
  • the first TCO layer 110 can be made of doped ITO.
  • the TCO layer 110 can have a resistance of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, or more Ohm/square meter.
  • the TCO layer 110 can have a resistance of at most about 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less Ohm/square meter.
  • the HTL 115 is disposed on the first TCO layer 110.
  • the HTL 115 facilitates the transport of holes from the perovskite layer 120 to the first TCO layer 110 without compromising transparency and conductivity.
  • the HTL 115 inhibits electron transport.
  • the HTL 115 is made of one or more nickel oxide layers.
  • the HTL 115 is made of another appropriate p-type material described in this disclosure.
  • the HTL 115 can have a thickness of at least about 5 nm, l0 nm, 20 nm, 50 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, or more.
  • the HTL 115 may have a thickness of at most about 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 50 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, or less.
  • the perovskite layer 120 is disposed on the HTL 115.
  • the perovskite layer 120 is the photoactive layer of the perovskite solar cell 240. That is, the perovskite layer 120 absorbs light and generate holes and electrons that subsequently diffuse into the HTL 115 and the ETL 125, respectively.
  • the perovskite layer 120 is made of methylammonium lead triiodide, methylammonium lead tribromide, methylammonium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof.
  • the perovskite layer 120 is made of formamidinium lead triiodide, formamidinium lead tribromide, formamidinium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made of cesium lead triiodide, cesium lead tribromide, cesium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 can be a triple cation perovskite material with formamidinium, methylammonium, and cesium cations in different ratios. Incorporating cesium into the perovskite lattice can provide enhanced thermodynamic stability.
  • the bandgap of the perovskite layer 120 can be tuned by adjusting the halide content of the methylammonium lead trihalide or formamidinium lead trihalide.
  • the perovskite layer 120 can have a thickness of at least about 250 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, 1.25 micrometers, 1.5 micrometers, 1.75 micrometers, 2 micrometers, or more.
  • the perovskite layer 120 can have a thickness of at most about 2 micrometers, 1.75 micrometers, 1.5 micrometers, 1.25 micrometers, 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 250 nm, or less.
  • the ETL 125 is disposed on the perovskite layer 120.
  • the ETL 125 facilitates the transport of electrons from the perovskite layer 120 to the second TCO layer 130 without compromising transparency and conductivity. In contrast, the ETL 125 inhibits electron transport.
  • the ETL 125 is made of phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (“PCBM”).
  • the ETL 125 is made of another appropriate n- type material described in this disclosure (e.g., C60).
  • the ETL 125 can have a thickness of at least about 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, or more.
  • the ETL 125 can have a thickness of at most about 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, or less.
  • the interface between the ETL 125 and the perovskite layer 120 can be important to the performance of the perovskite layer 120.
  • the surface of the perovskite layer 120 can be hydrophilic to enable good coverage of a hydrophilic ETL (e.g., PCBM).
  • the second TCO layer 130 is disposed on the ETL 125.
  • the second TCO layer 130 can serve as the negative terminal or anode of the perovskite solar cell 240.
  • the second TCO layer 130 can have a thickness of at least about 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, or more.
  • the second TCO layer 130 can have a thickness of at most about 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, or less.
  • the second TCO layer 130 can be made of indium oxide (ITO).
  • the second TCO layer 130 may be made of doped ITO.
  • the second UV cured layer 205-2 is disposed on the second TCO layer 130. When cured, the second UV cured layer 205-2 can act as an adhesive to bind the perovskite solar cell 240 to the silicon solar cell 140, which can provide relatively strong mating of the solar cells 140 and 240.
  • the second UV cured layer 205-2 can be cured before applying additional layers.
  • the second UV cured layer 205-2 can increase light transmission through the solar module 100, thereby increasing light absorption by the silicon solar cell 140.
  • the second UV cured layer 205-2 can electrically isolate the perovskite solar cell 240 from the silicon solar cell 140.
  • the refractive index and thickness of the second UV cured layer 205-2 can be chosen such that more light within a desired spectral range (e.g., visible and infrared) is transmitted to the silicon solar cell 140 than a solar module absent the UV cured layer 205-2. This can result from a reduction in steep changes in refractive indices between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140.
  • the UV cured layer 205-2 can be a relatively high index material to match the refractive index of the second TCO layer 130. In some embodiments, the refractive index of the UV cured layer 205-2 is roughly equal to or greater than 1.5.
  • the second UV cured layer 205-2 can also passivate a bottom surface of the perovskite solar cell 240 while providing additional UV protection to the underlying silicon solar cell 140.
  • the UV cured layers 205-1 and 205-2 are transparent to visible light but may have different compositions. That is, the second UV cured layer 205-2 can include the same or a different substance compared to the first UV cured layer 205-1.
  • the UV cured layers 205-1 and 205-2 can include different mixtures containing different UV curable compounds, different concentrations of UV curable compounds, different transparent additives, different concentrations of transparent additives, or combinations thereof.
  • the UV cured layers 205-1 and 205-2 are in solid form, liquid form, or both a solid and liquid form such as a highly viscous liquid or gel form.
  • the UV cured layers 205-1 and 205-2 can be cured at the same, different, and/or multiple times throughout a manufacturing process.
  • Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0085]
  • the encapsulant 135 is disposed on the second UV cured layer 205-2.
  • the encapsulant 135, in combination with the second UV cured layer 205-2, can prevent the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 from being exposed to dust, moisture, and UV light.
  • the encapsulant 135 can act as a protective layer at the interface of the perovskite cell 240 and silicon cell 140, while the second UV cured layer 205-2 can effectively bind the surfaces of the cells in addition to providing UV protection.
  • the UV cured layer 205-2 can be first cured to encapsulate the perovskite solar cell 240 and the encapsulant 135 can be deposited on the silicon solar cell 140 to encapsulate the tandem module 100.
  • the encapsulant 135 can electrically isolate the perovskite solar cell 240 from the silicon solar cell 140. Moreover, the encapsulant 135 can have a relatively high refractive index (e.g., roughly equal to or greater than 1.4) that matches the refractive index of the top silicon nitride or TCO layer of the silicon solar cell 140.
  • a high refractive index material(s) can decrease transmission losses between the second TCO layer 130, second UV cured layer 205-2, encapsulant layer 135, and silicon solar cell 140, resulting in improved current density of the solar module 100.
  • the use of a high refractive index material(s) can also improve light trapping.
  • the encapsulant 135 can include ethylene-vinyl-acetate (“EVA”), thermal plastic polyolefin (“TPO”), PDMS, silicone, paraffin, or the like.
  • EVA ethylene-vinyl-acetate
  • TPO thermal plastic polyolefin
  • PDMS silicone, paraffin, or the like.
  • the layers 205-2 and/or 135 can isolate both the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 from the surrounding environment.
  • the layers 205-2 and/or 135 can be configured to prevent volatilization of one or more components of the perovskite layer 120.
  • the layers 205-2 and/or 135 can minimize loss of organic cations (e.g., methylammonium, formamidinium, etc.) due to heating of the perovskite layer 120.
  • the layers 205-2 and/or 135 can reduce the egress of chemical species from the perovskite layer 120 such as lead iodide or other lead halides, the egress of which can result in degraded reliability of the integrated tandem module 100.
  • the encapsulant 135 can be treated to have sufficient cross linking to protect the perovskite layer 120 from water, oxygen, volatilization of the organic compounds of the perovskite layer 120, or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • the encapsulant 135 can have a cross linked percentage of at least about 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, or more percent.
  • the encapsulant 135 can have a cross linked percentage of at most about 95, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, or less percent.
  • the second UV cured layer 205-2 includes the encapsulant 135.
  • a substance or mixture that includes a UV curable compound and the encapsulant 135 can be cured to form the second UV cured layer 205-2, which may include properties of both materials.
  • Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0087]
  • the silicon solar cell 140 can be a p-type silicon solar cell with a p-type substrate covered by a thin n-type layer (“emitter”), or it may be an n-type silicon solar cell with an n-type substrate covered by a thin p-type emitter.
  • the silicon solar cell 140 can be a monocrystalline silicon solar cell, a polycrystalline silicon solar cell, a PERC silicon solar cell, a HIT silicon solar cell, an interdigitated back contact cell (IBC), or the like.
  • the silicon solar cell 140 can have a back sheet 145.
  • the back sheet 145 seals the solar module 100 to prevent moisture ingress.
  • the back sheet 145 can be a glass sheet with a top surface and a bottom surface.
  • the top surface of the glass sheet may have a highly reflective coating or textured surface to further increase light trapping or scattering back into the silicon solar cell 140 and the perovskite solar cell 240.
  • the glass sheet can be transparent.
  • the glass sheet can be substantially transparent.
  • the transparency of the glass sheet can facilitate bifacial operation of the solar module 100.
  • the solar module 100 can be configured to absorb light from both sides of the module 100.
  • the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be electrically isolated from each other, and each cell may have its own terminals. That is, the tandem solar module 100 can be a 4-terminal module with each solar cell having two respective terminals.
  • the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be connected in series or parallel by connecting the terminals in the appropriate manner. In the case of a series connection, the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be current- matched.
  • the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be voltage-matched. Laser scribing can be used to achieve the current matching or voltage matching, e.g., by connecting individually scribed perovskite solar cells in series or parallel to achieve a desired voltage or current. Parallel or series connection between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be made via busbars/electrodes before module lamination. This allows rapid and easy introduction into any existing silicon manufacturing process. [0090]
  • the solar module 100 can have a power conversion efficiency of at least about 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, 30%, or more.
  • FIG.1A depicts one example configuration of a tandem silicon- perovskite solar module 100 with two UV cured layers 205.
  • numerous other tandem solar module and single cell solar module configurations are possible with UV cured layers disposed in multiple different locations of a multilayer structure.
  • UV cured layers can be applied to a solar cell’s substrate side, electrode side, or both.
  • UV cured Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 layers can also surround the solar cell.
  • FIGs.8A-8D Various perovskite solar module configurations with different UV curable encapsulations are described with respect to FIGs.8A-8D.
  • FIG.2 schematically illustrates a perovskite solar module 200 having a UV cured layer 205 protecting P1, P2, and P3 scribe lines.
  • the perovskite solar module 200 is an example of a perovskite solar module that can be used in isolation or integrated with a silicon solar panel to form a tandem silicon-perovskite solar module, e.g., the tandem silicon- perovskite solar module 100 of FIG.1A.
  • FIG.2 shows a cross-sectional view of the perovskite solar module 200.
  • the perovskite solar module 200 includes a first TCO layer 110, a HTL 115, a perovskite (PVSK) layer 120, an ETL 125, and a second TCO layer 130 that form a perovskite solar cell 240.
  • the solar module 200 further includes an anode terminal 201 and a cathode terminal 202 that interface with the perovskite solar cell 240, e.g., to output power.
  • the HTL 115 and ETL 125 are depicted as solid lines to illustrate the various interconnects between the TCO layers 110 and 130, the perovskite layer 120, and the terminals 201 and 202.
  • the perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on a glass substrate 105, e.g., a bottom surface of a top glass sheet.
  • the UV cured layer 205 is disposed on the perovskite solar cell 240, encapsulating the underlying layers of the solar cell 240. Particularly, the UV cured layer 205 fills the scribe lines P1-P3 and bonds with the terminals 201 and 202. In general, the UV cured layer 205 protects the scribe lines P1-P3, provides structural stability, improves electrical isolation, and passivates the surface of the solar cell 240.
  • Anode region 211 and cathode region 212 designate opposite sides of the solar module 200 where the two terminals 201 and 202 of the photovoltaic 200 reside.
  • the anode region 211 includes the anode terminal 201 that is electrically connected to the first TCO layer 110.
  • the anode 201 is electrically isolated from the perovskite layer 120 and second TCO layer 130 due to a gap (G1) in these layers that is filled with the UV cured layer 205.
  • the cathode region 212 includes the cathode terminal 202 that is electrically connected to the first TCO layer 110 and the second TCO layer 130.
  • the cathode region 212 also includes a number of scribe lines P1-P3 that perform various functions such as forming interconnects.
  • the bulk of the solar module 200 resides in the space between the two regions 211 and 212 which can include multiple individually scribed perovskite segments.
  • each individually scribed perovskite segment can be separated by a corresponding set of scribe lines P1-P3 to form serial interconnections (e.g., monolith interconnections) between the perovskite segments.
  • Scribe lines P1-P3 correspond to respective gaps in one or more layers of the solar module 200 that allow overlapping layers to be deposited into the gaps to form contacts.
  • P1 scribe corresponds to a gap in the first TCO layer 110 that is filled by the PVSK layer 120, the second TCO layer 130, and the UV cured layer 205.
  • the P1 scribe isolates the first TCO layer 110 between neighboring perovskite segments.
  • P2 scribe corresponds to a gap in the PVSK layer 120 that is filled with the second TCO layer 130 and the UV cured layer 205.
  • the P2 scribe provides a channel to connect the first TCO layer 110 of one perovskite segment to the second TCO layer 130 of the next perovskite segment to form an interconnection.
  • P3 scribe corresponds to a gap in the PVSK layer 120 and the second TCO layer 130 that is filled with the UV cured layer 205.
  • P3 scribe isolates the second TCO layer 115 between neighboring perovskite segments, forming segments that can be integrated into the solar module 200.
  • the scribe line features P1-P3 can be scribed by multiple lithography operations (e.g., laser scribing) at various steps in the manufacturing process of the perovskite solar module 200. Such steps are described with respect to FIGs.3-7. Note, if the perovskite solar module 200 is utilized in a tandem silicon-perovskite solar module, the UV cured layer 205 can be cured before or after the perovskite solar module 200 is attached to a silicon solar panel.
  • the UV cured layer 205 can be first cured on the perovskite solar cell 240 to form perovskite-on-glass (“active glass”) with improved UV protection and light throughput. Subsequently, an encapsulant can be laminated between the active glass and a silicon solar cell to form the tandem silicon-perovskite module, e.g., the tandem module 100 of FIG.1A.
  • FIGs.8A-8D schematically illustrate various perovskite solar modules 800a-800d with different UV curable encapsulations.
  • Each of the example perovskite solar modules 800a-800b include a perovskite solar cell 240 that can be configured according to FIG.1B, FIG.2, or otherwise appropriate.
  • FIG.8A shows an example perovskite solar module 800a that includes a first UV cured layer 205-1, a top glass sheet 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV cured layer 205-2, an encapsulant layer 135, a back sheet 145, and an edge seal 210.
  • the perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on a bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 to form active glass and the first UV cured layer 205-1 is disposed on a top surface of the top glass sheet 105 to inhibit the transmission of UV light into the module 800a.
  • the second UV cured layer 205-2 is laminated with the encapsulant 135, between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the back sheet 145.
  • the second UV cured layer 205-2 can passivate the bottom Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 surface of the perovskite solar cell 240 and provide adhesion with the back sheet 145.
  • the edge seal 210 surrounds the lateral sides of the perovskite solar cell 240, along with the UV layer 205-2 and encapsulant 135 lamination, effectively sealing the perovskite cell 240 between the top glass sheet 105 and the back sheet 145.
  • the edge seal 210 can prevent ingress of contaminants (e.g., oxygen, and moisture) as well as egress of the encapsulating materials.
  • FIG.8B shows another example perovskite solar module 800b that includes a top glass sheet 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a UV cured layer 205, a back sheet 145, and an edge seal 210.
  • the perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on a bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 to form active glass.
  • the UV cured layer 205 is laminated between perovskite solar cell 240 and the back sheet 205.
  • FIG.8C shows another example perovskite solar module 800c that includes a first UV cured layer 205-1, a top glass sheet 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV cured layer 205-2, a back sheet 145, and an edge seal 210.
  • the perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on a bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 to form active glass and the first UV cured layer 205-1 is disposed on a top surface of the top glass sheet 105.
  • the second UV cured layer 205-2 is laminated between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the back sheet 145.
  • the edge seal 210 surrounds the lateral sides of the top glass sheet 105 and the perovskite solar cell 240.
  • the edge seal 210 is composed of the same substance as the UV cured layers 205, forming a complete encapsulation that is UV curable.
  • This solar module 800c configuration has the benefit of not involving additional encapsulation layers or other sealant materials.
  • FIG.8D shows another example perovskite solar module 800d that includes a first UV cured layer 205-1, a top glass sheet 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV cured layer 205-2, a back sheet 145, and an edge seal 210.
  • the example perovskite solar module 800d is configured similarly to the solar module 800c of FIG.8C except with an inverted structure.
  • the “back” sheet 145 Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 is disposed on the first UV cured layer 205-1, such that the first UV cured layer 205-1 is laminated between the top glass sheet 105 and the back sheet 145.
  • FIG.9A schematically illustrates a UV cured layer 205 disposed on a glass substrate 105 incident with UV light 400.
  • the UV cured layer 205 has a refractive index of ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ 1.56 and a thickness of ⁇ ⁇ .
  • the glass substrate 105 has a refractive index of ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ 1.46 and a thickness of ⁇ ⁇ .
  • Incident UV light 400-1 (with normal incidence) is reflected and/or absorbed at the interface of the layers 105 and 205 such that a fraction of transmitted UV light 400-2 passes through.
  • the transmission coefficient for a multilayer optical structure as a function of the refractive indices and thicknesses of the layers 105 and 205 can be determined from the Fresnel equations given the angle of incidence.
  • the refractive indices (and extinctions coefficients) of the glass substrate 105 and UV cured layer 205 are generally wavelength dependent.
  • the thicknesses of each layer 105 and 205 also affect the wavelength dependence, e.g., due to resonances.
  • the transmission coefficient generally depends on the wavelength of light and can be optimized to suppress UV light 400 of certain wavelengths (e.g., using various multilayer optimization methods). Theoretical calculations can be compared with experimental results to confirm desired performance.
  • FIG.9B is a graph illustrating the transmission efficiency (T %) of a perovskite solar cell as a function of wavelength.
  • the perovskite solar cell is configured according to FIG.1B with a UV cured layer applied.
  • the wavelength range in the graph of FIG.9B is from 250 nm to 350 nm, corresponding to a portion of the UV electromagnetic spectrum in the middle UV and near UV ranges. As shown in the graph, the transmission efficiency is less than 100 % for wavelengths between 250 nm and 350 nm.
  • the transmission efficiency is less than 90 % for wavelengths between 250 nm and 310 nm, less than 80 % for wavelengths between 250 nm and 290 nm, less than 60 % for wavelengths between 250 nm and 280 nm, and less than 55 % for wavelengths between 250 nm and 270 nm.
  • the UV cured layer is responsible for this reduced transmission efficiency, blocking some of the UV radiation from the perovskite solar cell. That is, the UV cured layer reflects and/or absorbs some of the UV radiation and consequently protects the perovskite solar cell from damaging UV light.
  • FIG.10A features a photograph of a perovskite solar module 240a without a UV cured layer after a stress test.
  • the solar module 240a underwent a 5 hour stress test at 75 °C.
  • FIG.10B features a photograph of a perovskite solar module 240b with a UV cured layer after a stress test.
  • the solar module 240b underwent a stress test for 100 hours at 75 °C.
  • the solar module 240a without Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 the UV cured layer shows signs of degradation, as seen in the circular dashed line region.
  • FIGs.11A and 11B are graphs illustrating the performance of the perovskite solar modules 240a and 240b during the stress tests at 75 °C. The graphs in FIGs.11A and 11B measure the power generated by the solar modules 240a and 240b, respectively, over a period of time with a constant illumination source.
  • FIG.11B illustrates remaining factor for the maximum power P max , the current at the maximum power I mp , and the voltage of the maximum power Vmp.
  • Pmax and Imp roughly overlap and gradually decrease, while Vmp remains roughly stable for 600 hours before starting to gradually decrease.
  • solar module 240a without UV cured layer retained approximately 60 % of its initial power conversion efficiency (PCE).
  • solar module 240b with UV cured layer retained greater than 90% of its initial PCE after 200 hours at 75 °C.
  • solar module 240b with UV cured layer shows little degradation even over extended test times.
  • the slow degradation is due to the UV cured layer, as well as a combination of factors such as the composition of the perovskite layer and the quality of the encapsulation of the perovskite layer.
  • the solar module 240b can achieve performance metrics that pass a standardized testing requirement. For example, such a module can pass reliability tests like the IEC 61215 and/or IEC 61646 standards, and even exceed the performance of these standards (e.g., still pass the standards after 4000 hours of testing).
  • FIGs.12A-12C are graphs illustrating the performance of various perovskite solar modules during extended 85 °C at 85% relative humidity (85°C/85%) reliability tests.
  • FIG.12A shows the performance over time of a perovskite solar module with an encapsulant and an edge seal, but without a UV cured layer.
  • the corresponding graph plots the normalized maximum power Pmax as a function of time.
  • FIG.12B shows the performance of a perovskite solar module 800a with an encapsulant, two UV cured layers, and an edge seal configured as in FIG.8A.
  • FIG.12C shows the performance of a perovskite solar module 800b with a UV cured layer and an edge seal configured as in FIG.8B.
  • FIGs.12B and 12C illustrate the normalized variables: maximum power Pmax (solid line), the fill factor FF Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 (short dash dot line), the open circuit voltage Voc (short dash line), and short current density J sc (long dash line) as functions of time. Normalized variables correspond to variables divided by their respective initial values. Comparing FIG.12A to FIGs.12B and 12C, the solar modules with the UV cured layer (800a and 800b) show little degradation even over relatively long test times.
  • FIG.3 is a flow chart of a fabrication process 300 for forming a perovskite photovoltaic, e.g., the perovskite solar module 200 of FIG.2.
  • the process 300 includes generating a substrate supporting a first transparent conducting layer and a hole transport layer (310). In some cases, a pre-formed substrate may instead be provided.
  • FIG.4 is a flowchart of operation 310 of FIG.3. Operation 310 includes providing a substrate (311).
  • the substrate may be a transparent substrate.
  • the substrate may include a silicon-based glass (e.g., an amorphous silicon dioxide, a doped silicon dioxide, etc.), a transparent conductive oxide, a ceramic, a chalcogenide glass, a polymer (e.g., a transparent plastic, poly(methyl methacrylate, etc.), or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • the substrate may include a top surface of a solar module.
  • the substrate may be a top glass sheet of a silicon solar panel assembly.
  • the substrate may be textured and/or patterned.
  • the substrate may include nano-scale texturing configured as an antireflective coating and an adhesion surface.
  • the substrate may include patterning configured to generate photonic channels.
  • the substrate may include pre- patterned portions with electrodes for removing energy from the solar cell (e.g., a top contact grid layout).
  • the substrate may have an area of at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, or more square meters.
  • the substrate may have an area of at most about 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1, or fewer square meters.
  • the substrate may be a large format substrate.
  • the substrate can be a 10th generation substrate.
  • Operation 310 includes applying one or more first transparent conductive materials to the substrate to form a first transparent conducting layer (312).
  • the first transparent conducting layer may include a transparent conductive oxide (e.g., indium tin oxide (ITO), indium zinc oxide, aluminum zinc oxide, indium cadmium oxide, etc.), a transparent conductive polymer (e.g., poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), poly(3,4- ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), poly(4,4-dioctyl Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 cyclopentadithiophene), etc.), carbon nanotubes, graphene, nanowires (e.g., silver nanowires), metallic grids (e.g., grid contacts including metals), thin films (e.g., thin metal films), conductive grain boundaries, or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • a transparent conductive oxide e.g., indium tin oxide (ITO), indium zinc oxide, aluminum zinc oxide
  • the first transparent conducting layer may have a full spectrum transparency of at least about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, or more.
  • the first transparent conducting layer may have a full spectrum transparency of at most about 99.9%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, or less.
  • the first transparent conducting layer may have a full spectrum transparency in a range as defined by any two of the proceeding values. For example, the first transparent conducting layer can have a full spectrum transparency of 75% to 85%.
  • the first transparent conducting layer may have a transparency over a spectral band of at least about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, or more.
  • the first transparent conducting layer may have a transparency over a spectral band of at most about 99.9%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, or less.
  • the first transparent conducting layer can have a transmission of 85% over the wavelength range from 400 nm to 1200 nm.
  • Operation 310 includes applying a hole transport layer to the first transparent conducting layer (313).
  • the hole transport layer is configured to shuttle holes from an absorbing layer to the first transparent conducting layer and out of the solar module.
  • the hole transport layer may include organic molecules (e.g., 2, 2', 7,7'- Tetrakis[N,N-di(4- methoxyphenyl)amino]-9,9'-spirobifluorene (Spiro-OMeTAD)), inorganic oxides (e.g., nickel oxide (NiOx), copper oxide (CuOx), cobalt oxide (CoOx), chromium oxide (CrOx), vanadium oxide (VOx), tungsten oxide (WOx), molybdenum oxide (Mo Ox), copper aluminum oxide (CuAlO2), copper chromium oxide (CuCrO2), copper gallium oxide (CuGaO2), etc.), inorganic chalcogenides (e.g., copper iodide (Cui), copper indium sulfide (CuInS2), copper zinc tin sulfide (CuZnSnS4), cupper barium tin sulfide (CuBaS
  • Operation 310 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations on the hole transport layer (314).
  • the one or more lithography operations may include optical lithography (e.g., (extreme) ultraviolet lithography, x-ray lithography, laser scribing, etc.), electron beam lithography, ion beam lithography, nanoimprint lithography, other direct writing processes (e.g., dip-pen lithography, inkjet printing), or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • a number of features can be inscribed onto the hole transport layer and the underlying first transparent conducting layer using a laser scribe.
  • the one or more lithography operations may include the addition and/or subtraction of features.
  • features can be cured and made permanent.
  • features can be formed by the removal of material from the target.
  • the process 300 includes applying one or more perovskite precursors to the hole transport layer (320).
  • the applying may include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma enhanced CVD, atomic layer deposition, spin coating, dip coating, doctor blading, drop casting, centrifugal casting, chemical solution deposition, sol-gel deposition, plating, physical vapor deposition, thermal evaporation, molecular beam epitaxy, sputtering, pulsed laser deposition, cathodic arc deposition, ultrasonic spray-on, inkjet printing, or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • the applying may include the application of a single perovskite precursor at a time. For example, a first perovskite precursor can be evaporated onto the hole transport layer, and subsequently a second perovskite precursor can be sprayed onto the first precursor.
  • the applying may include applying a number of precursors at one time.
  • an inkjet printer can apply a solution including a number of precursors.
  • the process 300 optionally includes applying one or more additional perovskite precursors to the hole transport layer (330).
  • the additional perovskite layers may be applied in the same way as in operation 320.
  • a first precursor can be deposited by physical vapor deposition, and subsequently a second precursor can be deposited by physical vapor deposition.
  • the additional perovskite layer may be applied in a different way from operation 320.
  • a first perovskite precursor can be deposited by physical vapor deposition while a second perovskite precursor can be deposited by ultrasonic spray.
  • Operation 330 may be repeated a number of times.
  • a number of additional perovskite precursors can be applied to the hole transport layer in a number of operations.
  • the ultrasonic spray-on application may include the use of a number of spray nozzles.
  • the ultrasonic spray-on process may include the use of a single spray nozzle.
  • the single spray nozzle can be configured to raster across the application area to Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 provide coverage of the area.
  • a number of different types of spray nozzles may be tested for formation of a predetermined uniformity and/or thickness of the film deposited by the spray nozzle, and an optimal spray nozzle may be selected from the different types of spray nozzles.
  • the nozzles may form a bank of nozzles configured to spray over a large area to improve throughput and efficiency.
  • the bank of nozzles may be a strip of nozzles (e.g., a line of nozzles across a single dimension), a two- dimensional arrangement of nozzles (e.g., nozzles distributed over a rectangular shape), a three-dimensional arrangement of nozzles (e.g., a number of nozzles distributed in three dimensions).
  • the spray nozzles may be adjusted to dispense at an angle.
  • the angle may be at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, or more degrees off of a parallel line from the substrate.
  • the angle may be at most about 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less degrees off of a parallel line from the substrate.
  • the angle may be configured to reduce or eliminate the precursor missing the substrate and fouling other components of the manufacturing process. Use of an ultrasonic spray-on application can enable a roll to roll inline fabrication process.
  • a series of nozzle banks can each sequentially add different layers to a substrate, the substrate can be processed (e.g., annealed, laser scribed, etc.), and a finished photovoltaic cell can be generated on a single line.
  • Using a roll to roll process can result in significant improvements in cost and speed of production as compared to step by step manufacture processes.
  • the one or more perovskite precursors may include one or more lead halides (e.g., lead fluoride, lead chloride, lead bromide, lead iodide, etc.), lead salts (e.g., lead acetates, lead oxides, etc.), other metal salts (e.g., manganese halides, tin halides, metal oxides, metal halides, etc.), organohalides (e.g., formamidinium chloride, formamidinium bromide, formamidinium iodide, methylammonium chloride, methylammonium bromide, methylammonium iodide, butylammonium halides, etc.), alkali metal salts (e.g., alkali metal halides, etc.), alkali earth metal salts (e.g., alkali earth metal halides, etc.), perovskite nanoparticles, or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • a number of perovskite precursors can be used as the one or more perovskite precursors.
  • both methylammonium iodide and butylammonium iodide can be used as perovskite precursors.
  • the methylammonium iodide can be at about a 1:99, 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, 40:60, 50:50, 60:40, 70:30, 80:20, 10:90, or 99:1 ratio with the butylammonium iodide.
  • mixtures of lead halides can be used as a portion of the perovskite precursors.
  • mixtures of lead halides may permit tuning of the bandgap of the perovskite layer.
  • using different mixtures of lead (II) bromide and lead (II) iodide can result in different bandgaps.
  • Using different amounts of lead (II) chloride can affect the crystal stability of the perovskite layer and can prevent phase segregation within the layer.
  • the amount of lead (II) chloride added may be greater than the amount of lead (II) bromide added by weight.
  • the amount of lead (II) chloride added may be less than the amount of lead (II) bromide added by weight.
  • the amount of lead (II) chloride added may be the same as the amount of lead (II) bromide added by weight.
  • the amount of lead (II) iodide soluble in a solution may be related to the amount of lead (II) bromide and lead (II) chloride in the solution. For example, adding in more lead (II) bromide and lead (II) chloride to a solution of lead (II) iodide can improve solubility of the lead (II) iodide and result in decreased particulate in the perovskite layer.
  • the one or more perovskite precursors may be one or more perovskite precursor solutions.
  • a lead (II) iodide solution in a solution of dimethyl sulfoxide can be a perovskite precursor.
  • a perovskite precursor may be in a solution of at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99, or more weight percent perovskite precursor.
  • a perovskite precursor may be in a solution of at most about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1, or less weight percent perovskite precursor.
  • the solution may include one or more solvents.
  • solvents include, but are not limited to, polar solvents (e.g., water, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide, ethers, esters, acetates, acetone, etc.), non-polar solvents (e.g., hexanes, toluene, etc.), or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • Proper mixing of the solvent as well as solvent composition can contribute to controlled solvent removal speeds and thus impact grain development as well as bulk defect formation.
  • Tuning the interaction of the coordination strength of a solvent and the evaporation rate of a precursor solution can enable better control of the perovskite film that is formed as well as the reaction kinetics of the formation.
  • a weakly coordinating solvent that quickly evaporates may form a more disordered film, but may also result in less residual solvent being present in the film.
  • Mixtures of solvents can improve solute solubility, decrease evaporation rates, improve performance of application methods, and the like.
  • a combination of NMP and DMSO can increase solute solubility and decrease solvent evaporation rates.
  • the properties of the NMO/DMSO mixture can decrease premature crystallization of perovskite and improve film quality.
  • adding NMP to DMF can increase spray width of the solution through an ultrasonic spray on apparatus, which can provide greater flexibility in the spray on parameters used.
  • the one or more perovskite precursors may include one or more additives.
  • the addition of the one or more additives may be configured to reduce and/or eliminate defects within perovskite layers as prepared elsewhere herein.
  • the one or more additives may include one or more recrystallization solvents.
  • the one or more recrystallization solvents may be added to a solution including the one or more perovskite precursors.
  • the one or more recrystallization solvents may be applied after deposition of the one or more perovskite precursors and/or after an annealing of the one or more perovskite precursors.
  • a lead halide precursor can be applied and subsequently a recrystallization solvent can be applied, and the perovskite precursors can be further annealed to orient the lead halide precursor for better methylammonium iodide integration.
  • recrystallization solvents include, but are not limited to, halobenzenes (e.g., chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, etc.), haloforms (e.g., chloroform, iodoform, etc.), ethers (e.g., diethyl ether), or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • halobenzenes e.g., chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, etc.
  • haloforms e.g., chloroform, iodoform, etc.
  • ethers e.g., diethyl ether
  • parameters include, but are not limited to, perovskite precursor solution application temperature, volume application rate, ultrasonic power of an ultrasonic spray-on instrument, lateral speed of precursor application (e.g., the speed of a substrate moving through an applicator), applicator height (e.g., the distance from an applicator to the substrate, environmental factors (e.g., humidity, reactive gas content, temperature, etc.), wetting surface energy, or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • Any portion of process 300, including the application of the perovskite precursors may take place in a controlled environment.
  • the controlled environment may have a relative humidity of at least about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 99%, or more.
  • the controlled environment may have a relative humidity of at most about 99%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, 10%, or less.
  • the controlled environment may include a controlled atmosphere.
  • the controlled atmosphere may include inert gasses (e.g., nitrogen, noble gases, etc.).
  • the controlled atmosphere may have an oxygen content of at least about 1 part per million (ppm), 10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm, 500 ppm, 1,000 ppm, 5,000, ppm, 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, or more.
  • the controlled atmosphere may have an oxygen content of at most about 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 1%, 5,000 ppm, 1,000 pm, 500 ppm, 100 ppm, 50 ppm, 10 ppm, 1 ppm, or less.
  • the controlled atmosphere may be at a temperature of at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 190, 200, or more degrees Celsius.
  • the controlled atmosphere may be at a temperature of at most about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, or less degrees Celsius.
  • the process 300 includes performing one or more processing operations to the perovskite precursors to generate a perovskite layer (340). If the perovskite precursors are instead deposited as a completed perovskite layer, operation 340 can be omitted.
  • FIG.5 is a flowchart of operation 340 of FIG.3.
  • Operation 340 includes providing a substrate supporting a first transparent conducting layer, a hole transport layer, and one or more applied perovskite precursors (341).
  • the substrate may be a result of operations 310 - 330 of process 300.
  • Operation 340 includes performing one or more processing operations on the perovskite precursors to generate a perovskite layer (342).
  • the one or more processing operations may include annealing, light exposure (e.g., ultraviolet light exposure), agitation (e.g., vibration), functionalization (e.g., surface functionalization), electroplating, template inversion, or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • a substrate with perovskite precursors can be annealed to form a perovskite layer from the precursors.
  • perovskite precursors can be annealed and subsequently functionalized.
  • the annealing may be annealing under inert atmosphere (e.g., argon atmosphere, nitrogen atmosphere).
  • the annealing may be under a reactive atmosphere (e.g., an atmosphere including a reagent (e.g., methylammonium)).
  • the annealing may be at a temperature of at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, or more degrees Celsius.
  • the annealing may be at a temperature of at most about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, or less degrees Celsius.
  • the annealing may be at a temperature range as defined by any two of the proceeding values.
  • the annealing can be at a temperature of 90 to 120 degrees Celsius.
  • the annealing may be for a time of at least about 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, or more minutes.
  • the annealing may be for a time of at most about 120, 105, 75, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, or less minutes.
  • the annealing may be for a time range as defined by any two of the proceeding values.
  • the annealing can be for a time of about 5 to about 15 minutes.
  • a substrate can be annealed at a first time and temperature, and subsequently annealed again at a second Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 time and temperature.
  • Such additional annealing processes can reduce the number of defects present in the perovskite layer and improve performance.
  • Operation 340 optionally includes applying one or more additional layers to the perovskite layer (343).
  • the one or more additional layers may include one or more additional perovskite layers.
  • a second perovskite layer with a different bandgap can be applied to the first perovskite layer.
  • the one or more additional layers may include one or more additional perovskite precursors.
  • iodine gas can be applied to form an iodine layer on a perovskite and/or perovskite precursor layer.
  • the one or more additional layers may include one or more washing operations. A washing operation may include an application of a solvent to the perovskite layer.
  • solvents include, but are not limited to, water, non-polar organic solvents (e.g., hexanes, toluene, etc.), polar organic solvents (e.g., methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, acetone, etc.), ionic solvents, or the like.
  • the one or more additional layers may include one or more passivating layers.
  • a passivating layer may include a reagent configured to passivate and/or stabilize the perovskite layer. For example, an application of a solution including phenethylammonium iodide can passivate and stabilize the grains of the perovskite layer.
  • Operation 340 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations on the one or more additional layers and/or the perovskite layer (344).
  • the one or more lithography operations may be one or more lithography operations as described elsewhere herein.
  • a laser scribe can be used to generate features (e.g., P2 scribe features) on the perovskite layer and one or more of the underlying layers.
  • the process 300 includes applying an electron transport layer to the perovskite layer (350).
  • FIG.6 is a flow chart of operation 350 of FIG.3.
  • Operation 350 includes providing a substrate supporting a first transparent conducting layer, a hole transport layer, and a perovskite layer (351).
  • Operation 350 includes applying an electron transport layer to the perovskite layer (352).
  • the electron transport layer may be applied by methods and systems as described elsewhere herein (e.g., physical vapor deposition, ultrasonic spray-on, etc.).
  • the electron transport layer may include a material with a conduction band minimum less than that of the perovskite layer. For example, if the perovskite layer has a conduction band minimum of -3.9 eV, the electron transport layer may have a conduction band minimum of -4 eV.
  • electron transport layer materials include, but are not limited to, titanium oxide (e.g., TiO2), zinc oxide, tin oxide, tungsten oxide, indium oxide, niobium oxide, iron oxide, cerium oxide, Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 strontium titanium oxide, zinc tin oxide, barium tin oxide, cadmium selenide, indium sulfide, lead iodide, organic molecules (e.g., phenyl-C61 -butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM), poly(3- hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT), etc.), lithium fluoride, buckminsterfullerene (C60), or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • titanium oxide e.g., TiO2
  • PCBM phenyl-C61 -butyric acid methyl ester
  • P3HT poly(3- hexylthiophene-2,5-diy
  • Operation 350 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations on the electron transport layer (353).
  • the one or more lithography operations may be one or more lithography operations as described elsewhere herein.
  • a laser scribe can be used to generate features on the electron transport layer and one or more of the underlying layers.
  • the process 300 includes applying a second transparent conducting layer to the electron transport layer (360).
  • FIG.7 is a flow chart of operation 360 of FIG.3.
  • Operation 360 includes providing a substrate supporting a first transparent conducting layer, a hole transport layer, a perovskite layer, and an electron transport layer (371).
  • the substrate may be a substrate generated by operations 310 - 350 of FIG.3.
  • Operation 360 includes applying a second transparent conducting layer to the electron transport layer (362).
  • the second transparent conducting layer may be of the same type as the first transparent conducting layer.
  • both the first and second transparent conducting layers may be indium tin oxide.
  • the second transparent conducting layer may be of a different type as the first transparent conducting layer.
  • the second transparent conducting layer may be deposited as described elsewhere herein (e.g., physical vapor deposition, etc.).
  • Operation 360 optionally includes applying one or more busbars to the second transparent conducting layer (363).
  • the one or more busbars may be applied as busbars (e.g., preformed busbars are applied to the second transparent conducting layer).
  • a mask can be used to form the busbars from an evaporation process.
  • the one or more busbars may be applied as a solid film and subsequently formed into the busbars.
  • a silver film can be deposited onto the second transparent conducting layer and etched to form the busbars.
  • a laser scribe can be used to form the busbars from a silver film.
  • Operation 360 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations on the electron transport layer (364).
  • the one or more lithography operations may be one or more lithography operations as described elsewhere herein.
  • a laser scribe can be used to generate features (e.g., P3 scribe features) on the second transparent conducting layer and one or more of the underlying layers.
  • the busbars may be attached to at least about 2, 3, 4, or more terminals.
  • the busbars may be attached to at most about 4, 3, 2, or less terminals.
  • the terminals may be configured to form a parallel connection with one or more additional photovoltaic modules.
  • the terminals may be configured to form a series connection with one or more additional photovoltaic modules.
  • the terminals may be scribed (e.g., laser scribed).
  • the terminals may be configured to enable connection of a perovskite photovoltaic device with another photovoltaic device prior to a lamination of the two photovoltaic devices.
  • a perovskite photovoltaic device can be connection via two terminals to a silicon photovoltaic device.
  • the process 300 includes applying an ultraviolet curable compound to the second transparent conducting layer (370).
  • ultraviolet curable compounds include various photopolymers such as resins (e.g., epoxy resins) and acrylate- based compositions that are curable with ultraviolet light, as well as others described elsewhere herein.
  • Ultraviolet curable compounds may include one or more photoinitators (e.g., free radical or ionic photoinitators) to activate curing when exposed to ultraviolet light.
  • the ultraviolet curable compound may be applied in the form of a mixture that includes one or more additives (e.g., other encapsulants) such as those described elsewhere herein.
  • the ultraviolet curable compound can be applied over scribe features, e.g., P1-P3 scribe features, for protection and structural stability.
  • the ultraviolet curable compound may be applied to the first transparent conducting layer as well as the second transparent conducting layer.
  • the ultraviolet curable compound can be supported between the substrate and the first transparent conducting layer.
  • the ultraviolet curable compound may be applied across the second transparent conducting layer (e.g., applied to the whole layer), to a portion of the second transparent conducting layer (e.g., a portion of the layer), to the edges of the second transparent conducting layer (e.g., as a seal over the entire stack of layers), or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • the ultraviolet curable compound can be applied on the edge (e.g., as an edge seal) of the full stack of layers to prevent moisture and oxygen diffusion into the stack.
  • the process 300 optionally includes applying an encapsulant to the ultraviolet curable compound (370).
  • the ultraviolet curable compound and encapsulant may be configured to reduce or substantially eliminate an exposure of the perovskite layer to one or more reactive species.
  • the ultraviolet curable compound and encapsulant may be substantially transparent.
  • the ultraviolet curable compound and encapsulant may be transparent in a same region of light as the second transparent conducting layer.
  • the Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 ultraviolet curable compound and encapsulant may have refractive indices similar to the second transparent conducting layer.
  • the ultraviolet curable compound and encapsulant may be configured to reduce or substantially eliminate an exposure of the perovskite layer to one or more reactive species. Examples of reactive species include, but are not limited to, oxygen, water, and polar molecules (e.g., polar volatile organic compounds, acids, etc.).
  • encapsulants include, but are not limited to, PDMS, HelioSealTM, silicon glue, butyl-based sealants, or the like.
  • the encapsulant may include tape.
  • the tape may be an adhesive backed barrier.
  • the encapsulant may be placed such that the encapsulant ends at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, or more millimeters from the edge.
  • the encapsulant may be place such that the encapsulant ends at most about 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or fewer millimeters from the edge.
  • Operation 300 includes curing the ultraviolet curable compound with ultraviolet light (380).
  • the ultraviolet curable compound can be exposed to ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, an ultraviolet lamp, one or more ultraviolet lasers or other light sources, or combinations thereof.
  • the ultraviolet curable compound can be cured before and/or after application of the encapsulant. If the perovskite photovoltaic is integrated in a silicon-perovskite tandem solar cell, the ultraviolet curable compound can also be cured after mating with the silicon panel.
  • FIG.13 is a flow chart of a fabrication process 1300 for forming a perovskite layer.
  • the process 1300 may be one embodiment of operations 320-340 of FIG.3.
  • the process 1300 includes providing a substrate including a hole transport layer (1310).
  • the substrate may also include a transparent conducting layer as described elsewhere herein.
  • the hole transport layer may be a hole transport layer as described elsewhere herein.
  • the substrate may be a substrate as described elsewhere herein.
  • the process 1300 includes applying a lead layer to the hole transport layer (1320).
  • the lead layer may include lead metal (e.g., lead (0)), lead salts (e.g., lead (II) acetate, lead (II) halide, lead (I) salts, etc.), or any combination thereof.
  • lead (II) acetate e.g., lead (II) acetate, lead (II) halide, lead (I) salts, etc.
  • a metallic lead layer may be deposited onto the hole transport layer, and a layer of lead (II) acetate may be applied to the lead layer.
  • the lead layer may be deposited as described elsewhere herein.
  • the lead may be deposited by physical vapor deposition.
  • the lead layer may be deposited by the same deposition method and/or deposition machinery as the hole transport layer.
  • the same physical vapor deposition instrument can be used to deposit both the hole transport layer as well as the lead layer.
  • Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0141]
  • the process 1300 includes applying an organic halide salt layer to the lead layer (1330).
  • the organic halide may be an organic halide as described elsewhere herein. For example, a mixture of methylammonium iodide, methylammonium chloride, and formamidinium iodide can be applied to the lead layer.
  • the organic halide layer may be applied by a deposition process as described elsewhere herein.
  • the organic halide can be applied by a spin coating process, an ultrasonic spray-on process, or the like.
  • the process 1300 includes applying a halide layer to the organic halide layer (1340).
  • the halide layer may include halides (e.g., fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc.), oxyhalides (e.g., chlorate, etc.), other halide containing compounds, or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • the halide layer may include iodine.
  • the halide layer may be iodine.
  • the halide layer may be applied to the organic halide salt layer by deposition processes as described elsewhere herein.
  • the halide can be applied as a gas.
  • iodine can be sublimated and applied as a gas to the organic halide salt layer.
  • the halide can be applied evenly across the surface of the organic halide salt layer.
  • An example of an application device may be a ‘shower head’ (e.g., an application head including a number of holes).
  • Another example of an application device may be a bar including one or more nozzles that can be translated across the surface of the substrate. For example, a bar of the same width as the substrate can be moved across the substrate to deposit an even coat of halide.
  • the process 1300 includes performing one or more processing operations to form a perovskite layer (1350).
  • the perovskite layer may be a perovskite layer as described elsewhere herein (e.g., a perovskite layer from the process 300 of FIG.3).
  • the one or more processing operations may be one or more processing operations as described elsewhere herein.
  • the lead layer with a lead acetate layer deposited on top of it, a methylammonium iodide/formamidinium iodide layer, and an iodide layer can be annealed together at a temperature of 90-120 degrees Celsius to form a methylammonium/formamidinium lead iodide perovskite layer.
  • the one or more processing operations may include a wash.
  • the wash may include use of one or more solvents described elsewhere herein.
  • the wash may be configured to remove unreacted precursors from the perovskite layer.
  • an isopropanol wash can be performed to remove residual organic halide salts.
  • the one or more processing operations may include one or more treatments. Examples of treatments include, but are not limited to, application of Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 phenethylammonium iodide, thiocyanate washes, other passivation and/or stabilization processes, or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • the present disclosure provides a method of generating a perovskite layer including spraying on a solution including precursors for the perovskite layer.
  • a quench solution may be applied to the precursors to form the perovskite layer.
  • the solution may include all of the precursors for the perovskite layer.
  • the solution can include a lead halide, an organohalide, and a halide.
  • the solution may include perovskite precursors as described elsewhere herein.
  • the solution may be applied by processes as described elsewhere herein.
  • the solution can be applied by ultrasonic spray on techniques.
  • the solution may be treated after application.
  • the solution can be heated to remove solvent from the solution.
  • the solution may not be treated after application.
  • the quench solution may be applied to a solution (e.g., a precursor solution).
  • the quench solution may be applied to dried precursors.
  • the quench solution may include an antisolvent (e.g., a solvent that the perovskite precursors are less soluble in than the solvent for the precursor solution).
  • antisolvents include, but are not limited to polar solvents (e.g., alcohols, acetone, etc.), long- chain non-polar solvents (e.g., octadecene, squalene, etc.), or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • the quench solution may be applied as described elsewhere herein.
  • the quench solution may be applied by ultrasonic spray-on techniques.
  • the solution may be subjected to one or more atmospheric conditions to aid in the removal of the solvent.
  • the one or more atmospheric conditions may include reduced pressure (e.g., application of a vacuum), increased pressure (e.g., blowing gas over the substrate), or the like, or a combination thereof.
  • the reduced pressure may include application of a partial vacuum around the substrate. Such a vacuum may pull solvent form the film to effect rapid solvent removal and produce a high quality film.
  • the increased pressure may include use of an air knife or similar blowing scheme to aid in the removal of the solvent. Such high quality films may appear specular under visual inspection.
  • the solution After application of the precursor solution, the solution may be given time to self-level prior to solidification.
  • FIG.14 is a flow chart of a process 2000 for manufacturing a tandem solar module.
  • the process 2000 includes providing a silicon solar panel (2010).
  • the silicon solar panel may be a silicon solar panel as described elsewhere herein.
  • the silicon solar panel may be a front contact solar panel, an integrated back contact solar panel, a shingled solar panel, or the like.
  • the silicon solar panel may have at least about 10, 15, 20, Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 72, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, or more solar cells.
  • the silicon solar panel may have at most about 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 72, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, or less solar cells.
  • the silicon solar panel has 60 six-inch solar cells arranged in a 6-by-10 grid. The cells may be connected in series. The cells may each have an open circuit voltage of 0.7 V, for a total open circuit voltage of approximately 42 V.
  • the process 2000 includes fabricating perovskite-on-glass as described elsewhere herein (2020).
  • the perovskite-on-glass can be fabricated using the process 300 of FIG.3.
  • the perovskite-on-glass may have at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more layers.
  • the perovskite-on-glass may have at most about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or less layers.
  • the process 2000 includes laser scribing the perovskite-on-glass to form perovskite cells or strips (2030).
  • the fabricating may include use of fabrication techniques as described elsewhere herein.
  • the fabricating can include use of a laser scribe to define the one or more perovskite solar cells.
  • the one or more perovskite solar cells may be a number of perovskite solar cells.
  • the one or more perovskite solar cells may be at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99, or more perovskite solar cells.
  • the one or more perovskite solar cells may be at most about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or less perovskite solar cells.
  • the perovskite solar cells may be connected in series.
  • the perovskite solar cells may be connected in parallel.
  • the laser scribing may separate the perovskite layer into a number of segments.
  • the segments may be formed into a number of perovskite solar cells.
  • contacts can be applied to the segments to extract charge from the segments.
  • the laser scribing may be configured to generate a number of perovskite cells which, when connected together, have a same or substantially same voltage output as the silicon module.
  • the voltage output of the perovskite layer per unit area can be known, and the perovskite layer can be scribed to form perovskite cells of a size to provide a predetermined voltage.
  • a perovskite layer can be scribed to form 5 perovskite sub-modules each including 40 perovskite solar cells to match a silicon solar module that has a same voltage output as the 40 perovskite solar cells.
  • the 5 perovskite sub- modules can be connected in parallel to increase the current produced by the perovskite layer while maintaining the voltage match with the silicon module.
  • the process 2000 includes connecting the cells of the silicon solar panel to the perovskite solar cells to form a tandem module (2040).
  • the silicon solar panel and the Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 perovskite solar cells may be in a voltage matched configuration. The voltage matched configuration may be as described elsewhere herein.
  • the silicon solar cells can have the same voltage as the perovskite solar cells.
  • the perovskite solar cells may be connected to one another in parallel.
  • the perovskite solar cells may be connected to one another in series.
  • the perovskite solar cells may be connected such that there are a number of modules in the perovskite layer.
  • rows of the perovskite solar cells can be each connected in series and the connected rows can be connected in parallel.
  • the silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar panel may be connected as described elsewhere herein.
  • the perovskite solar cells can be connected via copper (or another metal, charge collection tape, etc.) terminals to the same junction box as the silicon solar cells.
  • the process 2000 includes encapsulating the module with an ultraviolet curable compound (2050).
  • the encapsulating may further include an encapsulant.
  • the encapsulating can include applying the ultraviolet curable compound to the perovskite layer and the encapsulant to the ultraviolet curable compound and/or the silicon solar panel.
  • the ultraviolent curable compound can be applied to the perovskite layer or the silicon solar panel in the form of a mixture that includes the ultraviolent curable compound and the encapsulant.
  • the process 2000 includes curing the ultraviolent curable compound with ultraviolent light (2060).
  • the ultraviolent curable compound can be exposed to ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, an ultraviolet lamp, one or more ultraviolet lasers or other light sources, or combinations thereof. Once cured, the ultraviolent curable compound can bind the mated surfaces of the tandem solar module, providing protection from environmental effects and undesired ultraviolent light.
  • Operation 2060 can be performed at various different intervals depending on the order in which the ultraviolent curable compound and/or an encapsulant is applied during the encapsulation of the tandem module. For example, if operation 2050 includes applying an ultraviolent curable compound, followed by an encapsulant, operation 2060 can be performed before and/or after the encapsulant is applied.
  • the process 2000 can include applying a number of contacts to the one or more perovskite solar cells to electrically couple the one or more perovskite solar cells.
  • the contacts may be applied using one or more processes as described elsewhere herein.
  • the contacts can be evaporated onto the perovskite solar cells.
  • the contacts can be lithographically applied to the perovskite solar cells.
  • the method may include applying an encapsulant to the one or more perovskite solar cells.
  • the applying may be as described elsewhere herein.
  • the encapsulant can be applied via Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 evaporation.
  • the encapsulant can be spread as a viscous solution onto the perovskite solar cell.
  • the encapsulant may be as described elsewhere herein.
  • the encapsulant may be a thermal-plastic polyolefin.
  • the method may include applying an edge seal to the one or more perovskite solar cells.
  • the edge seal may be as described elsewhere herein.
  • the edge seal can be HelioSealTM.
  • the silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar panel can be electronically coupled to a same junction box. Such coupling to the same junction box can allow for simple integration of the perovskite layer into existing silicon solar modules.
  • the perovskite layer described herein may have a composition of MAn1FAn2Csn3PbX3, where MA is methylammonium and FA is formamidinium.
  • n1, n2, and n3 may independently be greater than 0 and/or less than 1.
  • nl + n2 + n3 may equal 1.
  • a perovskite solar cell including said perovskite layer may retain at least about 80% solar conversion efficiency after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at 45 °C.
  • the perovskite layer may be used as described elsewhere herein (e.g., used as an absorbing layer for a perovskite photovoltaic).
  • X may be selected from the group consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine.
  • X can be iodine.
  • X may be a combination of two or more of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine.
  • X may be a mixture of chlorine and iodine.
  • the combination may include individual components having a concentration of at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or more percent.
  • the combination may include individual components having a concentration of at most about 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1 or less percent.
  • the combination may be a mixture of about 1% chlorine and 99% iodine.
  • nl, n2, and n3 may individually be greater than at least about 0.0001, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.11, 0.12, 0.13, 0.14, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9, 0.95, 0.96, 0.97, 0.98, 0.99, or more.
  • n l , n 2 , and n 3 may individually be less than at most about 0.99, 0.98, 0.97, 0.96, 0.95, 0.9, 0.85, 0.8, 0.75, 0.7, 0.65, 0.6, 0.55, 0.5, 0.45, 0.4, 0.35, 0.3, 0.25, 0.2, 0.15, 0.14, 0.13, 0.12, 0.11, 0.1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05, 0.01, 0.005, 0.001, 0.0005, 0.0001, or less.
  • nl, n2, and n3 may individually have a range as defined by any two of the proceeding values.
  • n l can be about 0.001 to about 0.05
  • n2 can be about 0.8 to about 0.989
  • n3 can be about 0.01 to about 0.15.
  • the cations of the formula may be as described above (e.g., methylammonium, formamidinium, cesium, butyl ammonium).
  • Examples of other cations that may be used include, but are not limited to, imidazolium, dimethylammonium, guanidinium, ammonium, methylformamidinium, tetramethyl ammonium, trimethylammonium, rubidium, copper, palladium, platinum, silver, gold, rhodium, ruthenium, sodium, potassium, iron, other inorganic cations, other organic cations, or the like, or any combination thereof.
  • the perovskite layer may not include additional additives.
  • the perovskite layer may not include thiocyanate.
  • the perovskite layer may not include carbamides.
  • the perovskite layer may be configured to provide high performance and longevity without additional additives.
  • the lack of additional additives may provide lower cost and easier manufacturing of the perovskite layer.
  • the inclusion of the cesium cation (or an equivalent alternate cation) may improve the thermal stability of the perovskite layer.
  • the presence of cesium can increase the strength of the molecular bonds of the lead halide structure of the perovskite layer.
  • the cesium ions may also have a lower vapor pressure than organic ions, which may contribute to the thermal stability of the perovskite layer.
  • formamidinium may be more resilient to high temperatures due to their increased molecular weight as compared to other organic cations (e.g., methylammonium).
  • the perovskite solar cell may be a perovskite solar cell as described elsewhere herein.
  • the perovskite solar cell may be a solar cell formed on a top glass of a silicon solar cell.
  • the perovskite layer may retain at least about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99, or more percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and ⁇ 100 °C.
  • the perovskite layer may retain at most about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, or less percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and ⁇ 100 °C.
  • the perovskite layer may retain a percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and ⁇ 100 °C as defined by any two of the proceeding values.
  • the perovskite precursor may be annealed to form a perovskite layer.
  • the perovskite layer may include a composition of MAn1FAn2Csn3PbX3.
  • MA may be methylammonium.
  • FA may be formamidinium.
  • n l , n 2 , and n 3 may independently be greater than 0 and/or less than 1.
  • n l + n 2 + n3 may equal 1.
  • a perovskite solar cell including said perovskite layer may retain at least about 80% solar conversion efficiency after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and ⁇ 100 °C.
  • the perovskite layer may be subjected to an encapsulation lamination process at a temperature of at least about 90 °C.
  • the temperature of the encapsulation lamination process may be at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, or more degrees Celsius.
  • the temperature of the encapsulation lamination process may be at a temperature of at most about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, or less degrees Celsius.
  • the temperature of the encapsulation lamination process may be in a temperature range as defined by any two of the proceeding values.
  • the encapsulation may be as described elsewhere herein (e.g., with respect to UV cured layers 205-1/205-2 and encapsulant 135 of FIG.1A).
  • the perovskite solar cell may be a perovskite solar cell as described elsewhere herein.
  • the perovskite solar cell can be a solar cell formed on a top glass of a Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 silicon solar cell.
  • the perovskite layer may retain at least about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99, or more percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and ⁇ 100 °C.
  • the perovskite layer may retain at most about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, or less percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and ⁇ 100 °C.
  • the perovskite layer may retain a percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and ⁇ 100 °C as defined by any two of the proceeding values.
  • the perovskite layer may retain at least about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or more percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after the encapsulation lamination process.
  • the perovskite layer may retain at most about 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, or less percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after the encapsulation lamination process.
  • the perovskite layer may retain an efficiency of the initial conversion efficiency value after the encapsulation lamination process as defined by any two of the proceeding values.
  • the perovskite precursor may be applied as described elsewhere herein.
  • the perovskite precursor can be applied using an ultrasonic spray-on process.
  • the precursors can be applied in different spray-on operations (e.g., lead (II) iodide can be applied to a substrate, and methylammonium iodide can be applied to the lead iodide).
  • the perovskite precursors can be applied in a single operation.
  • a solution including all of the precursors for the perovskite layer can be applied and annealed to form the perovskite layer.
  • the annealing process may include heating the perovskite layer to at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, or more degrees Celsius.
  • the annealing process may include hating the perovskite layer to at most about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, or less degrees Celsius.
  • the annealing process may include heating the perovskite layer to a temperature range as defined by any two of the proceeding values.
  • a UV cured layer can be implemented in various examples, such as solar cells that use PDMS as an encapsulant or on the top glass, include or don’t include an ultrathin silver layer, that are fabricated in an inline PVD process, that have electrical connection Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 within a tandem solar module, that include a mixed composition perovskite solar cell, that have scalable manufacturing methods, and that undergo reliability testing and packaging.
  • WO patent application 2022066707 A1 specifically paragraphs 153-184, discuss such examples.
  • FIG.15 shows a computer system 1201 that is programmed or otherwise configured to direct the fabrication and manufacturing processes described herein (e.g., physical vapor deposition, ultrasonic spray-on, slot-die etc.) or control power electronics connected to the solar modules described herein.
  • the computer system 1201 includes a central processing unit (CPU, also “processor” and “computer processor” herein) 1205, which can be a single core or multi core processor, or multiple processors for parallel processing.
  • the computer system 1201 also includes memory 1210 or memory location (e.g., random-access memory, read-only memory, flash memory), electronic storage unit 1215 (e.g., hard disk), communication interface 1220 (e.g., network adapter) for communicating with one or more other systems, and peripheral devices 1225, such as cache, other memory, data storage and/or electronic display adapters.
  • the memory 1210, storage unit 1215, communication interface 1220 and peripheral devices 1225 are in communication with the CPU 1205 through a communication bus (solid lines), such as a motherboard.
  • the storage unit 1215 can be a data storage unit (or data repository) for storing data.
  • the computer system 1201 can be operatively coupled to a computer network (“network”) 1230 with the aid of the communication interface 1220.
  • the network 1230 can be the Internet, an internet and/or extranet, or an intranet and/or extranet that is in communication with the Internet.
  • the network 1230 in some cases is a telecommunication and/or data network.
  • the network 1230 can include one or more computer servers, which can enable distributed computing, such as cloud computing.
  • the network 1230 in some cases with the aid of the computer system 1201, can implement a peer-to-peer network, which may enable devices coupled to the computer system 1201 to behave as a client or a server.
  • the CPU 1205 can execute a sequence of machine-readable instructions, which can be embodied in a program or software. The instructions may be stored in a memory location, such as the memory 1210.
  • the instructions can be directed to the CPU 1205, which can subsequently program or otherwise configure the CPU 1205 to implement methods of the Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 present disclosure. Examples of operations performed by the CPU 1205 can include fetch, decode, execute, and writeback.
  • the CPU 1205 can be part of a circuit, such as an integrated circuit. One or more other components of the computer system 1201 can be included in the circuit. In some cases, the circuit is an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC).
  • ASIC application specific integrated circuit
  • the storage unit 1215 can store files, such as drivers, libraries and saved programs.
  • the storage unit 1215 can store user data, e.g., user preferences and user programs.
  • the computer system 1201 in some cases can include one or more additional data storage units that are external to the computer system 1201, such as located on a remote server that is in communication with the computer system 1201 through an intranet or the Internet.
  • the computer system 1201 can communicate with one or more remote computer systems through the network 1230.
  • the computer system 1201 can communicate with a remote computer system of a user.
  • Examples of remote computer systems include personal computers (e.g., portable PC), slate or tablet PC’s (e.g., Apple® iPad, Samsung® Galaxy Tab), telephones, Smart phones (e.g., Apple® iPhone, Android-enabled device, Blackberry®), or personal digital assistants.
  • the user can access the computer system 1201 via the network 1230.
  • Methods as described herein can be implemented by way of machine (e.g., computer processor) executable code stored on an electronic storage location of the computer system 1201, such as, for example, on the memory 1210 or electronic storage unit 1215.
  • the machine executable or machine-readable code can be provided in the form of software.
  • the code can be executed by the processor 1205.
  • the code can be retrieved from the storage unit 1215 and stored on the memory 1210 for ready access by the processor 1205.
  • the electronic storage unit 1215 can be precluded, and machine-executable instructions are stored on memory 1210.
  • the code can be pre-compiled and configured for use with a machine having a processer adapted to execute the code or can be compiled during runtime.
  • the code can be supplied in a programming language that can be selected to enable the code to execute in a precompiled or as-compiled fashion.
  • aspects of the systems and methods provided herein, such as the computer system 1201 can be embodied in programming.
  • Various aspects of the technology may be thought of as “products” or “articles of manufacture” typically in the form of machine (or processor) executable code and/or associated data that is carried on or embodied in a type of machine readable medium.
  • Machine-executable code can be stored on an electronic storage unit, such Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 as memory (e.g., read-only memory, random-access memory, flash memory) or a hard disk.
  • “Storage” type media can include any or all of the tangible memory of the computers, processors or the like, or associated modules thereof, such as various semiconductor memories, tape drives, disk drives and the like, which may provide non-transitory storage at any time for the software programming. All or portions of the software may at times be communicated through the Internet or various other telecommunication networks. Such communications, for example, may enable loading of the software from one computer or processor into another, for example, from a management server or host computer into the computer platform of an application server.
  • another type of media that may bear the software elements includes optical, electrical and electromagnetic waves, such as used across physical interfaces between local devices, through wired and optical landline networks and over various air-links.
  • Non-volatile storage media include, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as any of the storage devices in any computer(s) or the like, such as may be used to implement the databases, etc. shown in the drawings.
  • Volatile storage media include dynamic memory, such as main memory of such a computer platform.
  • Tangible transmission media include coaxial cables; copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that include a bus within a computer system.
  • Carrier-wave transmission media may take the form of electric or electromagnetic signals, or acoustic or light waves such as those generated during radio frequency (RF) and infrared (IR) data communications.
  • Computer-readable media therefore include for example: a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, any other magnetic medium, a CD-ROM, DVD or DVD-ROM, any other optical medium, punch cards paper tape, any other physical storage medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a ROM, a PROM and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, any other memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave transporting data or instructions, cables or links transporting such a carrier wave, or any other medium from which a computer may read programming code and/or data.
  • Many of these forms of computer readable media may be Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to a processor for execution.
  • the computer system 1201 can include or be in communication with an electronic display 1235 that includes a user interface (UI) 1240 for providing, for example, control over fabrication process parameter.
  • UI user interface
  • Examples of UI’s include, without limitation, a graphical user interface (GUI) and web-based user interface.
  • GUI graphical user interface
  • Methods and systems of the present disclosure can be implemented by way of one or more algorithms. An algorithm can be implemented by way of software upon execution by the central processing unit 1205.
  • While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. It is not intended that the invention be limited by the specific examples provided within the specification.

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Abstract

Silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, and tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules, each including one or more transparent layers curable by ultraviolet light are provided. In one aspect, a solar module is described. The solar module includes: a substance including a compound curable by ultraviolet light; and a number of layers including: a first layer of the substance; a first substrate layer including glass; and a perovskite solar cell having a first band gap, the perovskite solar cell between the first layer of the substance and the first substrate layer. In some examples, the compound can be a resin or an acrylate-based composition.

Description

Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 ENCAPSULATED PEROVSKITE MODULES AND SOLAR CELLS CONTAINING THE SAME FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The invention features are in the field of solar cells, such as perovskite solar cells (PVSC) and tandem solar cells. BACKGROUND [0002] Solar cells, also referred to as photovoltaic cells, are optoelectronic devices that convert light into electricity using the photovoltaic effect. Silicon solar cells are capable of converting light within a wavelength range of about 300 nanometers (“nm”) to 1100 nm into electricity. However, the conversion efficiency of silicon solar cells decreases appreciably as the wavelength of light decreases from 1100 nm. Additionally, silicon solar cells are unable to convert wavelengths of light above about 1100 nm to electricity because such photons lack the energy required to overcome the band gap of silicon. [0003] A tandem solar cell has two individual solar cells stacked on top of one another, where a top cell absorbs incident light and a bottom cell absorbs residual light transmitted through the top cell. The bottom cell can be a silicon solar cell, and the top cell can be composed of a different material. The top cell can have a higher band gap than the silicon solar cell. Accordingly, the top cell can be capable of efficiently converting shorter wavelengths of light to electricity. The top cell can be transparent to longer wavelengths of light, which can allow the underlying silicon solar cell to absorb and convert such longer wavelengths of light to electricity. Thus, the tandem solar cell can generate electricity over a wider wavelength range of light and with a higher conversion efficiency than either cell individually. [0004] In general, solar cells are sensitive to the environment, including ambient ultraviolet (UV) light, water exposure, high temperatures, and other environmental effects which can degrade performance of the solar cells if not mitigated. However, the service life of an encapsulant meant to protect a solar cell is often compromised by similar phenomena, such as interactions between moisture absorption, oxygen, and UV radiation from sunlight. In high-grade solar cells, poor encapsulants can be a bottleneck for extended lifecycles and conversion efficiencies. Accordingly, a need exists for improved systems, materials, and methods for protecting and encapsulating solar cells. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 SUMMARY [0005] The present disclosure describes silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, and tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules, each including one or more transparent layers that are curable by ultraviolet light (UV). Manufacturing methods of such solar modules are also described. [0006] A UV curable compound as described herein refers to a material that can be cured (e.g., solidified) when exposed to UV light of a suitable intensity. Photopolymers, such as light-activated resins and acrylate-based compositions, are types of UV curable compounds that can be particularly useful in solar cell applications. A photopolymer typically includes multifunctional monomers, oligomers, or both that polymerize in the presence of UV light, increasing the viscosity of the photopolymer as a result. A photopolymer may also be doped with one or more photoinitators (e.g., free radical or ionic photoinitators) that create reactive species when exposed to UV light, activating the polymerization process during curing. [0007] Once cured, a UV curable compound can act as an adhesive, coating, and encapsulant for various solar module configurations, such as silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules, and the like. The UV curable compound generally provides surface passivation and enhanced throughput for the solar modules, among other features. The UV curable compound can be laminated or combined in a mixture with other transparent encapsulants, such as silicone, thermal plastic polyolefin (TPO), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), and the like, to improve multiple solar module performance metrics without significantly altering manufacturing processes. [0008] A tandem silicon-perovskite solar module as described herein is a solar module composed of two solar modules stacked on each other. The solar modules include a silicon solar cell and a perovskite solar cell, with the perovskite solar cell usually stacked on top of the silicon solar cell. That is, when installed, sunlight is first incident on the perovskite solar cell. The perovskite solar cell generally has a higher bandgap than the silicon solar cell. For example, the perovskite solar cell can have a bandgap of about 1.7 electron volts (“eV”) while the silicon solar cell has a bandgap of about 1.1 eV. Accordingly, the perovskite solar cell is capable of efficiently converting shorter wavelengths of light to electricity. The perovskite solar cell can be transparent to longer wavelengths of light, which allows the underlying silicon solar cell to absorb and convert such longer wavelengths of light to electricity. Together, the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell are capable of efficiently converting a wider spectrum of light to electricity than a single solar cell, e.g., Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 there may be less thermalization loss in a tandem solar module than in a single solar module resulting in a higher full spectrum efficiency. The addition of perovskite solar cells can improve the resultant solar modules by decreasing cost, improving performance per weight of the module, improve overall performance of the module, and the like. [0009] The silicon solar cell can be a monocrystalline or multi-crystalline silicon solar cell. The silicon solar cell can be a component of a conventional solar panel. The solar panel may have a back sheet on which the silicon solar cell is disposed. An encapsulant can cover the top of the silicon solar cell to prevent it from being exposed to dust and moisture. [0010] The perovskite solar cell can be deposited on a bottom surface of the top glass sheet. This differs from the construction of conventional tandem solar modules in which a perovskite cell is disposed directly on top of a silicon wafer. Depositing the perovskite solar cell on the bottom surface of the top glass sheet allows manufacturers to incorporate perovskite solar cells into their conventional silicon solar panels with no re-tooling or process changes. Instead, manufacturers can merely substitute a conventional glass sheet with the perovskite glass sheet. This disclosure may refer to the perovskite glass sheet, or perovskite- on-glass, as “active glass.” [0011] A UV curable compound can be deposited on a top surface of the top glass sheet, a bottom surface of the perovskite solar cell, or both. The UV curable compound can be applied to the perovskite glass sheet and subsequently cured with UV light before or after the perovskite solar cell is incorporated into the tandem solar module. UV cured layers can provide improved UV protection, encapsulation, passivation, and throughput for the tandem module. The UV curable compound may also be deposited on a top surface of the perovskite solar cell, between the mating surfaces of the perovskite solar cell and the top glass sheet. This can passivate the top surface of perovskite cell exposed to sunlight, improving performance of the tandem module further. In some cases, the encapsulant covering the top of the silicon solar cell can be substituted or combined in a mixture with the UV curable compound. [0012] The perovskite solar cell includes a first transparent conducting oxide (“TCO”) layer which can be deposited on the top glass sheet, a hole transport layer (“HTL”) deposited on the first TCO layer, a perovskite layer deposited on the HTL, an electron transport layer (“ETL”) deposited on the perovskite layer, and a second TCO layer deposited on the ETL. The first and second TCO layers can serve as terminals for the perovskite solar cell. The ETL and HTL facilitate electron and hole transport, respectively, while inhibiting hole and electron transport, respectively. The perovskite layer can absorb light to generate charge Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 carriers, which results in a voltage and current flow across the terminals of the perovskite solar cell. [0013] The perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell can be electrically isolated from each other, and each cell can have its own terminals. That is, the tandem solar module can be a 4-terminal module. The perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell can be connected in series or parallel by connecting the terminals in the appropriate manner. In the case of a series connection, the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell can be current-matched. In the case of a parallel connection, the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell can be voltage- matched. [0014] These features and other features relating to the silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules, and encapsulations of such modules described herein are summarized below. [0015] In general, in a first aspect, the disclosure features a solar module. The solar module includes: a substance including a compound curable by ultraviolet light; and a number of layers including: a first layer of the substance; a first substrate layer including glass; and a perovskite solar cell having a first band gap, the perovskite solar cell between the first layer of the substance and the first substrate layer. [0016] In some examples, the compound can be a resin or an acrylate-based composition. In some examples, the substance can be composed of the compound. In other examples, the substance can further include an encapsulant. [0017] Implementations of the solar module can include one or more of the following features and/or features of other aspects. For example, the solar module can include an edge seal surrounding one or more of the layers. The edge seal can include the substance. In some examples, the edge seal is composed of the substance. [0018] The layers can further include a second layer of the substance, the first substrate layer between the second layer of the substance and the perovskite solar cell. The layers can further include a second substrate layer including glass or a back sheet, the second substrate layer being an outermost layer of the layers. The layers can further include an encapsulant layer between the first layer of the substance and the second substrate layer. [0019] The perovskite solar cell can include a photoactive perovskite layer. The perovskite solar cell can further include a first transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer and a second TCO layer, the photoactive perovskite layer between the first and second TCO layers. The first and second TCO layers can be terminals of the perovskite solar cell. The perovskite solar cell can include a number of segments separated by sets of scribe lines. Each Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 set of scribe lines can include P1, P2, and P3 scribe lines. The first layer of the substance can fill each set of scribe lines. The perovskite solar cell can further include a hole transport layer (HTL), the HTL between the first TCO layer and the photoactive perovskite layer. The perovskite solar cell can further include an electron transport layer (ETL), the ETL between the second TCO layer and the photoactive perovskite layer. [0020] The first bandgap can be in a range from 1.5 electron volts (eV) to 1.9 eV. [0021] The layers can further include a silicon solar cell having a second band gap different from the first band gap, the first layer of the substance between the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell. [0022] The substance can have a refractive index of 1.5 or more. The substance can be transparent to visible light. The substance can absorb ultraviolet light. [0023] The solar module can have a transmission efficiency less than 100 % for light having wavelengths of 350 nanometers (nm) or less. [0024] Other aspects of the present disclosure provide methods of fabricating and manufacturing the devices and components described above and elsewhere in this disclosure. [0025] Among other advantages, the disclosed examples of ultraviolet (UV) curable encapsulations can improve the reliability of solar cells, such as extending the lifetime of a solar cell, maintaining a conversion efficiency of the solar cell above a threshold amount, or both. Examples of UV curable compounds that can be used for UV curable encapsulations include photopolymers such as light-activated resins and acrylate-based compositions that are curable (e.g., polymerizable) with UV light. [0026] Resins (e.g., epoxy resins) are reactive polymers that can be useful in device fabrication and surface finishing. For example, resins can act as an adhesive to bind two surfaces, passivate surfaces, and provide a protective coating to surfaces. Uncured resins usually exist in a liquid form that can facilitate simplified application of the resin during various manufacturing steps. Resin curing (e.g., UV curing) refers to the hardening process that increases the resin’s viscosity. Resins can be cured to a solid form or an intermediate form between a liquid and a solid, such as a highly viscous liquid form or a gel form. [0027] Acrylates are monomers and/or oligomers that can rapidly polymerize into polyacrylate polymers. An acrylate-based composition containing, for example, an acrylate monomer and a photoinitiator can be cured by exposure to UV light to initiate polymerization to form a polyacrylate. [0028] UV curable compounds can have a number of advantages over compounds that are cured using other techniques, particularly for solar cell applications (e.g., tandem solar Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 cells). For instance, UV curable compounds are curable with UV light while traditional epoxy resins, for example, generally involve an exothermic or endothermic curing process. Exothermic and endothermic curing can involve (or produce) sufficient heat to thermally degrade solar cells and other components of a solar module. Moreover, traditional epoxies often include one or more co-reactants (e.g., hardeners or curatives) to facilitate curing. Accordingly, judicious mixtures of co-reactants can be necessary for optimal epoxy curing. In contrast, UV curable compounds can be single component adhesives that can be applied to a solar cell (e.g., at low viscosity) and then cured (e.g., solidified) once it has been applied. UV curable compounds can also be combined into a mixture with one or more additives (e.g., other encapsulants) to facilitate UV curing and improved performance of the mixture. Moreover, UV curable compounds can have significantly shorter curing times compared to conventional epoxy resins (e.g., seconds or minutes versus hours or days), while also providing UV protection by reflecting and/or absorbing UV light. Since solar cell lifecycles are severely compromised by environmental and UV degradation, these aforementioned features make UV curable compounds advantageous for industrial scale solar cell manufacturing, particularly for surface binding, surface passivation, encapsulation, and sealing. [0029] UV curable compounds can be especially effective in tandem solar cells that involve the hybridization of two disparate solar cells. In tandem silicon-perovskite solar cells, optical losses at the interface between a perovskite solar cell and a silicon solar cell, as well as recombination losses in any of the layers of the two cells, can result in a diminished conversion efficiency. A UV cured layer sandwiched between the perovskite cell and the silicon cell can significantly reduce optical losses and increase conversion efficiency. In particular, the UV cured layer can increase light transmission of useful parts of the spectrum (e.g., visible and infrared) that can be effectively converted into electricity by the solar cells. UV cured layers can also improve surface passivation on both sides of the perovskite solar cell to reduce the likelihood of the perovskite solar cell reacting with its surroundings. [0030] In some examples, a UV cured layer can have a relatively high refractive index (e.g., about 1.5 or more). When the UV cured layer is laminated between a perovskite solar cell and a silicon solar cell in a tandem cell, the UV cured layer can minimize steep changes in refractive indices between the two cells. This increases light transmission through the perovskite solar cell to the silicon solar cell by reducing light reflections at their interfaces. Increased light throughput can lead to higher efficiencies in converting photons into electrical energy. In addition, the UV cured layer improves the reliability of one or both of the cells by Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 relieving damage from UV exposure, improving structural stability, and passivating their surfaces. [0031] Multiple UV cured layers can be deposited in multiple locations within a perovskite solar module, silicon solar module, or tandem silicon-perovskite solar module. For example, UV cured layers can be disposed on a substrate side of a solar cell, an electrode side, between the two cells of a tandem module, laminated with a conventional encapsulant, or combinations thereof. A UV curable compound can also fully encapsulate multiple layers of a solar module, such as a solar cell of the module and a substrate the solar cell is deposited on. [0032] UV curable compounds can be integrated into a production level solution, where a standard encapsulant in solar panel encapsulation and packaging functions as the protective layer and a UV curable compound provides binding, surface passivation, and UV protection. [0033] UV curable compounds can be in liquid form, solid form, or combinations of both if multiple layers of UV curable compound are utilized. [0034] Although examples of UV curable encapsulations are described with respect to perovskite solar modules, silicon solar modules, and tandem perovskite-silicon solar modules, the UV curable encapsulations are not limited to such. The UV curable encapsulations described herein can be utilized in any solar cell application to improve solar cell performance and mitigate environmental degradation, UV light degradation, and other forms of degradation. [0035] Additional aspects and advantages of the present disclosure will become readily apparent to those skilled in this art from the following detailed description, where only illustrative embodiments of the present disclosure are shown and described. As will be realized, the present disclosure is capable of other and different embodiments, and its several details are capable of modifications in various obvious respects, all without departing from the disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive. INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE [0036] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. To the extent publications and patents or patent applications incorporated by Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 reference contradict the disclosure contained in the specification, the specification is intended to supersede and/or take precedence over any such contradictory material. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0037] FIG.1A schematically illustrates a tandem, 4-terminal, silicon-perovskite solar cell module including multiple ultraviolet (UV) cured layers, according to an embodiment. [0038] FIG.1B schematically illustrates a perovskite solar cell, according to an embodiment. [0039] FIG.2 schematically illustrates a perovskite solar module having a UV cured layer protecting scribe lines, according to an embodiment. [0040] FIG.3 is a flow chart of a fabrication process for forming a perovskite photovoltaic, according to an embodiment. [0041] FIG.4 is a flowchart of operation 310 of FIG.3, according to an embodiment. [0042] FIG.5 is a flowchart of operation 340 of FIG.3, according to an embodiment. [0043] FIG.6 is a flow chart of operation 350 of FIG.3, according to an embodiment. [0044] FIG.7 is a flow chart of operation 360 of FIG.3, according to an embodiment. [0045] FIGs.8A-8D schematically illustrate various perovskite solar modules with different UV curable encapsulations, according to some embodiments. [0046] FIG.9A schematically illustrates a UV cured layer disposed on a glass substrate incident with UV light, according to an embodiment. [0047] FIG.9B is a graph illustrating transmission efficiency of a perovskite solar cell as a function of wavelength, according to an embodiment. [0048] FIGs.10A and 10B feature photographs of perovskite solar modules after a stress test, without and with a UV cured layer respectively, according to some embodiments. [0049] FIGs.11A and 11B are graphs illustrating performance of perovskite solar modules during stress tests at 75 °C, without and with a UV cured layer respectively, according to some embodiments. [0050] FIGs.12A-12C are graphs illustrating performance of various perovskite solar modules during extended 85 °C at 85% relative humidity (85°C/85%) reliability tests, according to some embodiments. [0051] FIG.13 is a flow chart of a fabrication process for forming a perovskite layer, according to an embodiment. [0052] FIG.14 is a flow chart of a process for manufacturing a tandem solar module, according to an embodiment. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0053] FIG.15 shows a computer system that is programmed or otherwise configured to implement methods provided herein, according to an embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0054] While various embodiments of the invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed. [0055] Whenever the term “at least,” “greater than,” or “greater than or equal to” precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term “at least,” “greater than” or “greater than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of numerical values. For example, greater than or equal to 1, 2, or 3 is equivalent to greater than or equal to 1, greater than or equal to 2, or greater than or equal to 3. [0056] Whenever the term “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of numerical values. For example, less than or equal to 3, 2, or 1 is equivalent to less than or equal to 3, less than or equal to 2, or less than or equal to 1. [0057] The term “solar cell,” as used herein, generally refers to a device that uses the photovoltaic effect to generate electricity from light. [0058] The term “tandem,” as used herein, refers to a solar module with two solar cells that are stacked on top of one another. [0059] The term “4-terminal,” as used herein, refers to a tandem solar module in which the top and bottom solar cells each have two accessible terminals. [0060] The term “perovskite,” as used herein, generally refers to a material with a crystal structure similar to calcium titanium oxide and one that is suitable for use in perovskite solar cells. The general chemical forum for a perovskite material is ABX3. Examples of perovskite materials include methylammonium lead trihalide (i.e., CEENHaPbX3, where X is a halogen ion such as iodide, bromide, or chloride) and formamidinium lead trihalide (i.e., EENCElNEhPbX3, where X is a halogen ion such as iodide, bromide, or chloride). [0061] The term “monocrystalline silicon,” as used herein, generally refers to silicon with a crystal structure that is homogenous throughout the material. The orientation, lattice parameters, and electronic properties of monocrystalline silicon may be constant throughout Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 the material. Monocrystalline silicon may be doped with phosphorus or boron, for example, to make the silicon n-type or p-type respectively. [0062] The term “polycrystalline silicon,” as used herein, generally refers to silicon with an irregular grain structure. [0063] The terms “passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) solar cell,” as used herein, generally refer to a solar cell with an extra dielectric layer on the rear-side of the solar cell. This dielectric layer may act to reflect unabsorbed light back to the solar cell for a second absorption attempt, and may additionally passivate the rear surface of the solar cell, increasing the solar cell’s efficiency. [0064] The terms “heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer solar cell (HIT) solar cell,” as used herein, generally refer to a solar cell that is composed of a monocrystalline silicon wafer surrounded by ultra-thin amorphous silicon layers. One amorphous silicon layer may be n- doped, while the other may be p-doped. [0065] The term “an interdigitated back contact cell (IBC),” as used herein, generally refers to a solar cell including two or more electrical contacts disposed on the back side of the solar cell (e.g., on the side opposite the incident light). The two or more electrical contacts can be disposed adjacent to alternatingly n- and p-doped regions of the solar cell. An IBC can include a high-quality absorber material configured to permit carrier migration over a long distance. [0066] The terms “bandgap” and “band gap,” as used herein, generally refer to the energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band in a material. [0067] The term “electron transport layer” (“ETL”), as used herein, generally refers to a layer of material that facilitates electron transport and inhibits hole transport in a solar cell. Electrons are majority carriers in an ETL, while holes are minority carriers. An ETL can be made of one or more n-type layers. The one or more n-type layers can include an n-type exciton blocking layer. The n-type exciton blocking layer can have a wider band gap than the photoactive layer of the solar cell (e.g., the perovskite layer) but a conduction band that is closely matched to the conduction band of the photoactive layer. This allows electrons to easily pass from the photoactive layer to the ETL. [0068] The n-type layer can be a metal oxide, a metal sulfide, a metal selenide, a metal telluride, amorphous silicon, an n-type group IV semiconductor (e.g., germanium), an n-type group III-V semiconductor (e.g., gallium arsenide), an n-type group II- VI semiconductor (e.g., cadmium selenide), an n-type group I- VII semiconductor (e.g., cuprous chloride), an n- Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 type group IV-VI semiconductor (e.g., lead selenide), an n-type group V-VI semiconductor (e.g., bismuth telluride), or an n-type group II-V semiconductor (e.g., cadmium arsenide), any of which can be doped (e.g., with phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony) or undoped. The metal oxide can be an oxide of titanium, tin, zinc, niobium, tantalum, tungsten, indium, gallium, neodymium, palladium, cadmium, or an oxide of a mixture of two or more of such metals. The metal sulfide can be a sulfide of cadmium, tin, copper, zinc or a sulfide of a mixture of two or more of such metals. The metal selenide can be a selenide of cadmium, zinc, indium, gallium or a selenide of a mixture of two or more of such metals. The metal telluride can be a telluride of cadmium, zinc, cadmium or tin, or a telluride of a mixture of two or more of said metals. Alternatively, other n-type materials can be employed, including organic and polymeric electron transporting materials, and electrolytes. Suitable examples include, but are not limited to, a fullerene or a fullerene derivative (e.g., phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester, C60, etc.) or an organic electron transporting material including perylene or a derivative thereof. [0069] The term “hole transport layer” (“HTL”), as used herein, generally refers to a layer of material that facilitates hole transport and inhibits electron transport in a solar cell. Holes are majority carriers in an HTL, while electrons are minority carriers. An HTL can be made of one or more p-type layers. The one or more p-type layers can include a p-type exciton blocking layer. The p-type exciton blocking layer generally has a valence band that is closely matched to the valence band of the photoactive layer (e.g., the perovskite layer) of the solar cell. This allows holes to easily pass from the photoactive layer to the HTL. [0070] The p-type layer can be made of a molecular hole transporter, a polymeric hole transporter, or a copolymer hole transporter. For example, the p-type layer can be one or more of the following: nickel oxide, thiophenyl, phenelenyl, dithiazolyl, benzothiazolyl, diketopyrrolopyrrolyl, ethoxydithiophenyl, amino, triphenyl amino, carbozolyl, ethylene dioxythiophenyl, dioxythiophenyl, or fluorenyl. Additionally or alternatively, the p-type layer can include spiro-OMeTAD (2,2',7,7'-tetrakis-(N,N-di-p-methoxyphenylamine)-9,9'- spirobifluorene)), P3HT (poly(3-hexylthiophene)), PCPDTBT (Poly[2,l,3-benzothiadiazole- 4,7- diyl[4,4-bis(2-ethylhexyl)-4H-cyclopenta[2,l-b:3,4-b']dithiophene-2,6-diyl]]), PVK (poly(N- vinylcarbazole)), poly(3 -hexylthiophene), poly[N,N-diphenyl-4- methoxyphenylamine-4',4"- diyl], sexithiophene, 9,10-bis(phenylethynyl)anthracene, 5,12- bis(phenylethynyl)naphthacene, diindenoperylene, 9,10-diphenylanthracene, PEDOT-TMA, PEDOT:PSS, perfluoropentacene, perylene, poly(p-phenylene oxide), poly(p-phenylene Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 sulfide), quinacridone, rubrene, 4- (dimethylamino)benzaldehyde diphenylhydrazone, 4- (dibenzylamino) benzaldehyde- N,Ndiphenylhydrazone or phthalocyanines. [0071] The term “ultraviolet (UV) curable compound”, as used herein, generally refers to a material that can be cured under exposure to UV light of a suitable intensity. Examples of UV curable compounds include photopolymers such as resins, acrylate-based compositions, and the like, that are curable (e.g., polymerizable) by UV light. A UV curable compound may include one or more photoinitators (e.g., free radical or ionic photoinitators) to activate curing when exposed to UV light. Implementations also include mixtures of such UV curable compounds. A substance or mixture suitable for UV curable encapsulations can include one or more UV curable compounds and one or more additives (e.g., other encapsulants) in various concentrations. Examples of additives include resins (e.g., epoxy resin, light-curing epoxy resin, and optically clear resin (OCR)), optically clear adhesive (OCA), silicone, cyclized perfluoro-polymer, ethylene-vinyl-acetate (EVA), ethylene methyl acrylate (EMA), thermoplastic polyolefin (TPO), thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), thermoplastic elastomer (TPE), polyvinyl butyral (PVB), polyisobutylene (PIB), polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), acrylic compounds (e.g., poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), paraffin, and thermal cure epoxy resin), organic-inorganic hybrid materials (ORMOCERs (ORM)) and other organic materials. [0072] Though UV curable encapsulations are described herein with respect to silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules and silicon-perovskite tandem solar modules, the methods and devices of the present disclosure can be used with other solar cells (e.g., gallium arsenide (GaAs) solar cells) and tandem combinations of such solar cells. For example, the tandem solar module can be a tandem cadmium telluride (CdTe) – perovskite solar cell. In another example, the tandem solar module can be a dye sensitized solar cell – perovskite solar cell. [0073] FIG.1A schematically illustrates a tandem, 4-terminal, silicon-perovskite solar module 100. The solar module 100 includes a first UV cured layer 205-1, a top glass sheet 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV cured layer 205-2, a silicon solar cell 140, and a back sheet 145. In general, a UV cured layer 205 is formed by curing a layer of a substance that includes a UV curable compound, which can occur at one or more steps in a manufacturing process. Examples of such processes are described in more detail elsewhere herein. [0074] The first UV cured layer 205-1 is disposed on a top surface of the top glass sheet 105 and can inhibit transmission of UV light through the solar module 100 by absorbing Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 and/or reflecting UV light. As a result, less UV light reaches underlying layers of the solar module 100 compared to a solar module absent the UV cured layer 205-1. Accordingly, the UV cured layer 205-1 can protect the underlying layers of the solar module 100 from UV light degradation, including the perovskite solar cell 240, the silicon solar cell 140, or both. In some embodiments, the first UV cured layer 205-1 (or an additional UV cured layer) can be disposed on a bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 which can passivate a top surface of the perovskite solar cell 240. [0075] The top glass sheet 105, in combination with the first UV cured layer 205-1, can protect underlying layers of the solar module 100 from dust and moisture. The top glass sheet 105, and the solar module 100 as a whole, can have a form factor that corresponds to a conventional silicon solar panel. For example, the top glass sheet 105 can have a form factor that corresponds to a 32-cell, 36-cell, 48-cell, 60-cell, 72-cell, 96-cell, or 144-cell silicon solar panel. The top glass sheet 105 can have a thickness of at least about 2.0 millimeters (mm), 2.5 mm, 3.0 mm, 3.5 mm, 4.0 mm, 4.5 mm, 5.0 mm, or more. The top glass sheet 105 can have a thickness of at most about 5.0 mm, 4.5 mm, 4.0 mm, 3.5 mm, 3.0 mm, 2.5 mm, 2.0 mm, or less. The top glass sheet 105 may be transparent so as to allow light to access the underlying solar cells. In some cases, the top surface of the top glass sheet 105 may be covered with magnesium fluoride (MgF2) and/or polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) (e.g., 1:10 alumina PDMS, textured 1:50 alumina PDMS, or textured PDMS), which generally improves light trapping and refractive index matching. In some embodiments, the top surface of the top glass sheet 105 is covered with an anti-reflective coating to reduce reflections of light within a particular spectral range. Alternatively or in addition, the bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 can be textured in order to enable more light scattering back into the perovskite solar cell 240. [0076] FIG.1B schematically illustrates the perovskite solar cell 240 of the solar module 100 depicted in FIG.1A. The perovskite solar cell 240 includes a first transparent conducting oxide (TCO) layer 110, a hole transport layer (HTL) 115, a perovskite layer 120, an electron transport layer (ETL) 125, and a second TCO layer 130. The perovskite solar cell 240 can be disposed on the bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 through fabrication methods that are described in FIGs.3-7. Further details relating to such manufacturing methods are described in Int’l. Appl. No. PCT/US2021/051465, filed September 22, 2021, and titled Methods and Devices for Integrated Tandem Solar Module Fabrication, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0077] The perovskite solar cell 240 generally has a higher bandgap than the silicon solar cell 140. For example, the perovskite solar cell 240 can have a bandgap of about 1.30 electron volts (“eV”) to 2.10 eV, or greater. In contrast, the silicon solar cell 140 can have a bandgap of about 1.1 eV. Accordingly, the perovskite solar cell 240 is capable of efficiently converting shorter wavelengths of light to electricity compared to the silicon solar cell 140. The perovskite solar cell 240 can be transparent to longer wavelengths of light, which allows the underlying silicon solar cell 140 to absorb and convert such longer wavelengths of light to electricity. Together, the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be capable of efficiently converting a wider spectrum of light to electricity than a single solar cell. [0078] The first TCO layer 110 can be disposed directly on the top glass sheet 105. Depositing the first TCO layer 110 directly on the top glass sheet 105 can prevent damage to the HTL 115 and the perovskite layer 120. The first TCO layer 110 can serve as the positive terminal or cathode of the perovskite solar cell 240. The first TCO layer 110 can have a thickness of at least about 100 nanometers (nm), 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, or more. The first TCO layer 110 may have a thickness of at most about 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, or less. The first TCO layer 110 can be made of indium tin oxide (ITO). The first TCO layer 110 can be made of doped ITO. The TCO layer 110 can have a resistance of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, or more Ohm/square meter. The TCO layer 110 can have a resistance of at most about 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less Ohm/square meter. [0079] The HTL 115 is disposed on the first TCO layer 110. The HTL 115 facilitates the transport of holes from the perovskite layer 120 to the first TCO layer 110 without compromising transparency and conductivity. In contrast, the HTL 115 inhibits electron transport. In some embodiments, the HTL 115 is made of one or more nickel oxide layers. In other embodiments, the HTL 115 is made of another appropriate p-type material described in this disclosure. The HTL 115 can have a thickness of at least about 5 nm, l0 nm, 20 nm, 50 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, or more. The HTL 115 may have a thickness of at most about 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 50 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, or less. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0080] The perovskite layer 120 is disposed on the HTL 115. The perovskite layer 120 is the photoactive layer of the perovskite solar cell 240. That is, the perovskite layer 120 absorbs light and generate holes and electrons that subsequently diffuse into the HTL 115 and the ETL 125, respectively. In some embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made of methylammonium lead triiodide, methylammonium lead tribromide, methylammonium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made of formamidinium lead triiodide, formamidinium lead tribromide, formamidinium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made of cesium lead triiodide, cesium lead tribromide, cesium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 can be a triple cation perovskite material with formamidinium, methylammonium, and cesium cations in different ratios. Incorporating cesium into the perovskite lattice can provide enhanced thermodynamic stability. The bandgap of the perovskite layer 120 can be tuned by adjusting the halide content of the methylammonium lead trihalide or formamidinium lead trihalide. The perovskite layer 120 can have a thickness of at least about 250 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, 1.25 micrometers, 1.5 micrometers, 1.75 micrometers, 2 micrometers, or more. The perovskite layer 120 can have a thickness of at most about 2 micrometers, 1.75 micrometers, 1.5 micrometers, 1.25 micrometers, 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 250 nm, or less. [0081] The ETL 125 is disposed on the perovskite layer 120. The ETL 125 facilitates the transport of electrons from the perovskite layer 120 to the second TCO layer 130 without compromising transparency and conductivity. In contrast, the ETL 125 inhibits electron transport. In some embodiments, the ETL 125 is made of phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (“PCBM”). In other embodiments, the ETL 125 is made of another appropriate n- type material described in this disclosure (e.g., C60). The ETL 125 can have a thickness of at least about 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, or more. The ETL 125 can have a thickness of at most about 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, or less. The interface between the ETL 125 and the perovskite layer 120 can be important to the performance of the perovskite layer 120. The surface of the perovskite layer 120 can be hydrophilic to enable good coverage of a hydrophilic ETL (e.g., PCBM). The combination of environment (e.g., low humidity <15%, low temperature from 18 to 24 degrees Celsius) and solvent compatibility can impact the quality of the perovskite layer-ETL connection. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0082] The second TCO layer 130 is disposed on the ETL 125. The second TCO layer 130 can serve as the negative terminal or anode of the perovskite solar cell 240. The second TCO layer 130 can have a thickness of at least about 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, or more. The second TCO layer 130 can have a thickness of at most about 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, or less. The second TCO layer 130 can be made of indium oxide (ITO). The second TCO layer 130 may be made of doped ITO. [0083] The second UV cured layer 205-2 is disposed on the second TCO layer 130. When cured, the second UV cured layer 205-2 can act as an adhesive to bind the perovskite solar cell 240 to the silicon solar cell 140, which can provide relatively strong mating of the solar cells 140 and 240. Alternatively, the second UV cured layer 205-2 can be cured before applying additional layers. The second UV cured layer 205-2 can increase light transmission through the solar module 100, thereby increasing light absorption by the silicon solar cell 140. Additionally, the second UV cured layer 205-2 can electrically isolate the perovskite solar cell 240 from the silicon solar cell 140. The refractive index and thickness of the second UV cured layer 205-2 can be chosen such that more light within a desired spectral range (e.g., visible and infrared) is transmitted to the silicon solar cell 140 than a solar module absent the UV cured layer 205-2. This can result from a reduction in steep changes in refractive indices between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140. For example, the UV cured layer 205-2 can be a relatively high index material to match the refractive index of the second TCO layer 130. In some embodiments, the refractive index of the UV cured layer 205-2 is roughly equal to or greater than 1.5. The second UV cured layer 205-2 can also passivate a bottom surface of the perovskite solar cell 240 while providing additional UV protection to the underlying silicon solar cell 140. [0084] In general, the UV cured layers 205-1 and 205-2 are transparent to visible light but may have different compositions. That is, the second UV cured layer 205-2 can include the same or a different substance compared to the first UV cured layer 205-1. For example, the UV cured layers 205-1 and 205-2 can include different mixtures containing different UV curable compounds, different concentrations of UV curable compounds, different transparent additives, different concentrations of transparent additives, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the UV cured layers 205-1 and 205-2 are in solid form, liquid form, or both a solid and liquid form such as a highly viscous liquid or gel form. The UV cured layers 205-1 and 205-2 can be cured at the same, different, and/or multiple times throughout a manufacturing process. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0085] The encapsulant 135 is disposed on the second UV cured layer 205-2. The encapsulant 135, in combination with the second UV cured layer 205-2, can prevent the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 from being exposed to dust, moisture, and UV light. For example, the encapsulant 135 can act as a protective layer at the interface of the perovskite cell 240 and silicon cell 140, while the second UV cured layer 205-2 can effectively bind the surfaces of the cells in addition to providing UV protection. As another example, the UV cured layer 205-2 can be first cured to encapsulate the perovskite solar cell 240 and the encapsulant 135 can be deposited on the silicon solar cell 140 to encapsulate the tandem module 100. Like the second UV cured layer 205-2, the encapsulant 135 can electrically isolate the perovskite solar cell 240 from the silicon solar cell 140. Moreover, the encapsulant 135 can have a relatively high refractive index (e.g., roughly equal to or greater than 1.4) that matches the refractive index of the top silicon nitride or TCO layer of the silicon solar cell 140. Thus, using a high refractive index material(s) can decrease transmission losses between the second TCO layer 130, second UV cured layer 205-2, encapsulant layer 135, and silicon solar cell 140, resulting in improved current density of the solar module 100. The use of a high refractive index material(s) can also improve light trapping. For example, the encapsulant 135 can include ethylene-vinyl-acetate (“EVA”), thermal plastic polyolefin (“TPO”), PDMS, silicone, paraffin, or the like. [0086] The layers 205-2 and/or 135 can isolate both the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 from the surrounding environment. The layers 205-2 and/or 135 can be configured to prevent volatilization of one or more components of the perovskite layer 120. For example, the layers 205-2 and/or 135 can minimize loss of organic cations (e.g., methylammonium, formamidinium, etc.) due to heating of the perovskite layer 120. In another example, the layers 205-2 and/or 135 can reduce the egress of chemical species from the perovskite layer 120 such as lead iodide or other lead halides, the egress of which can result in degraded reliability of the integrated tandem module 100. The encapsulant 135 can be treated to have sufficient cross linking to protect the perovskite layer 120 from water, oxygen, volatilization of the organic compounds of the perovskite layer 120, or the like, or any combination thereof. The encapsulant 135 can have a cross linked percentage of at least about 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, or more percent. The encapsulant 135 can have a cross linked percentage of at most about 95, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, or less percent. In some embodiments, the second UV cured layer 205-2 includes the encapsulant 135. For example, a substance or mixture that includes a UV curable compound and the encapsulant 135 can be cured to form the second UV cured layer 205-2, which may include properties of both materials. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0087] In general, the silicon solar cell 140 can be a p-type silicon solar cell with a p-type substrate covered by a thin n-type layer (“emitter”), or it may be an n-type silicon solar cell with an n-type substrate covered by a thin p-type emitter. The silicon solar cell 140 can be a monocrystalline silicon solar cell, a polycrystalline silicon solar cell, a PERC silicon solar cell, a HIT silicon solar cell, an interdigitated back contact cell (IBC), or the like. [0088] The silicon solar cell 140 can have a back sheet 145. The back sheet 145 seals the solar module 100 to prevent moisture ingress. In some cases, the back sheet 145 can be a glass sheet with a top surface and a bottom surface. The top surface of the glass sheet may have a highly reflective coating or textured surface to further increase light trapping or scattering back into the silicon solar cell 140 and the perovskite solar cell 240. The glass sheet can be transparent. The glass sheet can be substantially transparent. The transparency of the glass sheet can facilitate bifacial operation of the solar module 100. For example, the solar module 100 can be configured to absorb light from both sides of the module 100. [0089] The perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be electrically isolated from each other, and each cell may have its own terminals. That is, the tandem solar module 100 can be a 4-terminal module with each solar cell having two respective terminals. The perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be connected in series or parallel by connecting the terminals in the appropriate manner. In the case of a series connection, the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be current- matched. In the case of a parallel connection, the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be voltage-matched. Laser scribing can be used to achieve the current matching or voltage matching, e.g., by connecting individually scribed perovskite solar cells in series or parallel to achieve a desired voltage or current. Parallel or series connection between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be made via busbars/electrodes before module lamination. This allows rapid and easy introduction into any existing silicon manufacturing process. [0090] The solar module 100 can have a power conversion efficiency of at least about 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, 30%, or more. [0091] Note that FIG.1A depicts one example configuration of a tandem silicon- perovskite solar module 100 with two UV cured layers 205. However, numerous other tandem solar module and single cell solar module configurations are possible with UV cured layers disposed in multiple different locations of a multilayer structure. For example, UV cured layers can be applied to a solar cell’s substrate side, electrode side, or both. UV cured Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 layers can also surround the solar cell. Various perovskite solar module configurations with different UV curable encapsulations are described with respect to FIGs.8A-8D. [0092] FIG.2 schematically illustrates a perovskite solar module 200 having a UV cured layer 205 protecting P1, P2, and P3 scribe lines. The perovskite solar module 200 is an example of a perovskite solar module that can be used in isolation or integrated with a silicon solar panel to form a tandem silicon-perovskite solar module, e.g., the tandem silicon- perovskite solar module 100 of FIG.1A. [0093] FIG.2 shows a cross-sectional view of the perovskite solar module 200. The perovskite solar module 200 includes a first TCO layer 110, a HTL 115, a perovskite (PVSK) layer 120, an ETL 125, and a second TCO layer 130 that form a perovskite solar cell 240. The solar module 200 further includes an anode terminal 201 and a cathode terminal 202 that interface with the perovskite solar cell 240, e.g., to output power. For clarity, the HTL 115 and ETL 125 are depicted as solid lines to illustrate the various interconnects between the TCO layers 110 and 130, the perovskite layer 120, and the terminals 201 and 202. The perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on a glass substrate 105, e.g., a bottom surface of a top glass sheet. The UV cured layer 205 is disposed on the perovskite solar cell 240, encapsulating the underlying layers of the solar cell 240. Particularly, the UV cured layer 205 fills the scribe lines P1-P3 and bonds with the terminals 201 and 202. In general, the UV cured layer 205 protects the scribe lines P1-P3, provides structural stability, improves electrical isolation, and passivates the surface of the solar cell 240. [0094] Anode region 211 and cathode region 212 designate opposite sides of the solar module 200 where the two terminals 201 and 202 of the photovoltaic 200 reside. The anode region 211 includes the anode terminal 201 that is electrically connected to the first TCO layer 110. The anode 201 is electrically isolated from the perovskite layer 120 and second TCO layer 130 due to a gap (G1) in these layers that is filled with the UV cured layer 205. The cathode region 212 includes the cathode terminal 202 that is electrically connected to the first TCO layer 110 and the second TCO layer 130. The cathode region 212 also includes a number of scribe lines P1-P3 that perform various functions such as forming interconnects. The bulk of the solar module 200 resides in the space between the two regions 211 and 212 which can include multiple individually scribed perovskite segments. In particular, each individually scribed perovskite segment can be separated by a corresponding set of scribe lines P1-P3 to form serial interconnections (e.g., monolith interconnections) between the perovskite segments. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0095] Scribe lines P1-P3 correspond to respective gaps in one or more layers of the solar module 200 that allow overlapping layers to be deposited into the gaps to form contacts. For example, P1 scribe corresponds to a gap in the first TCO layer 110 that is filled by the PVSK layer 120, the second TCO layer 130, and the UV cured layer 205. The P1 scribe isolates the first TCO layer 110 between neighboring perovskite segments. P2 scribe corresponds to a gap in the PVSK layer 120 that is filled with the second TCO layer 130 and the UV cured layer 205. The P2 scribe provides a channel to connect the first TCO layer 110 of one perovskite segment to the second TCO layer 130 of the next perovskite segment to form an interconnection. P3 scribe corresponds to a gap in the PVSK layer 120 and the second TCO layer 130 that is filled with the UV cured layer 205. P3 scribe isolates the second TCO layer 115 between neighboring perovskite segments, forming segments that can be integrated into the solar module 200. [0096] The scribe line features P1-P3 can be scribed by multiple lithography operations (e.g., laser scribing) at various steps in the manufacturing process of the perovskite solar module 200. Such steps are described with respect to FIGs.3-7. Note, if the perovskite solar module 200 is utilized in a tandem silicon-perovskite solar module, the UV cured layer 205 can be cured before or after the perovskite solar module 200 is attached to a silicon solar panel. For example, the UV cured layer 205 can be first cured on the perovskite solar cell 240 to form perovskite-on-glass (“active glass”) with improved UV protection and light throughput. Subsequently, an encapsulant can be laminated between the active glass and a silicon solar cell to form the tandem silicon-perovskite module, e.g., the tandem module 100 of FIG.1A. [0097] FIGs.8A-8D schematically illustrate various perovskite solar modules 800a-800d with different UV curable encapsulations. Each of the example perovskite solar modules 800a-800b include a perovskite solar cell 240 that can be configured according to FIG.1B, FIG.2, or otherwise appropriate. [0098] FIG.8A shows an example perovskite solar module 800a that includes a first UV cured layer 205-1, a top glass sheet 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV cured layer 205-2, an encapsulant layer 135, a back sheet 145, and an edge seal 210. [0099] The perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on a bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 to form active glass and the first UV cured layer 205-1 is disposed on a top surface of the top glass sheet 105 to inhibit the transmission of UV light into the module 800a. The second UV cured layer 205-2 is laminated with the encapsulant 135, between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the back sheet 145. The second UV cured layer 205-2 can passivate the bottom Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 surface of the perovskite solar cell 240 and provide adhesion with the back sheet 145. The edge seal 210 surrounds the lateral sides of the perovskite solar cell 240, along with the UV layer 205-2 and encapsulant 135 lamination, effectively sealing the perovskite cell 240 between the top glass sheet 105 and the back sheet 145. The edge seal 210 can prevent ingress of contaminants (e.g., oxygen, and moisture) as well as egress of the encapsulating materials. Examples of sealant materials that may be used for the edge seal 210 include silicones, polymers (e.g., polyurethanes, rubbers), butyls, acrylics, chaulks, encapsulants, tape, among others. [0100] FIG.8B shows another example perovskite solar module 800b that includes a top glass sheet 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a UV cured layer 205, a back sheet 145, and an edge seal 210. [0101] The perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on a bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 to form active glass. The UV cured layer 205 is laminated between perovskite solar cell 240 and the back sheet 205. In this example, no additional encapsulant layer is utilized. However, the UV cured layer 205 may include an encapsulant additive in addition to a UV curable compound. The edge seal 210 surrounds the lateral sides of the perovskite solar cell 240, along with the UV layer 205 lamination, effectively sealing the perovskite cell 240 between the top glass sheet 105 and the back sheet 145. [0102] FIG.8C shows another example perovskite solar module 800c that includes a first UV cured layer 205-1, a top glass sheet 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV cured layer 205-2, a back sheet 145, and an edge seal 210. [0103] The perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on a bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 to form active glass and the first UV cured layer 205-1 is disposed on a top surface of the top glass sheet 105. The second UV cured layer 205-2 is laminated between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the back sheet 145. In this example, the edge seal 210 surrounds the lateral sides of the top glass sheet 105 and the perovskite solar cell 240. Furthermore, the edge seal 210 is composed of the same substance as the UV cured layers 205, forming a complete encapsulation that is UV curable. This solar module 800c configuration has the benefit of not involving additional encapsulation layers or other sealant materials. [0104] FIG.8D shows another example perovskite solar module 800d that includes a first UV cured layer 205-1, a top glass sheet 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV cured layer 205-2, a back sheet 145, and an edge seal 210. [0105] The example perovskite solar module 800d is configured similarly to the solar module 800c of FIG.8C except with an inverted structure. In this case, the “back” sheet 145 Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 is disposed on the first UV cured layer 205-1, such that the first UV cured layer 205-1 is laminated between the top glass sheet 105 and the back sheet 145. [0106] FIG.9A schematically illustrates a UV cured layer 205 disposed on a glass substrate 105 incident with UV light 400. The UV cured layer 205 has a refractive index of ^^^ ൌ 1.56 and a thickness of ^^^. The glass substrate 105 has a refractive index of ^^ଶ ൌ 1.46 and a thickness of ^^ଶ. Incident UV light 400-1 (with normal incidence) is reflected and/or absorbed at the interface of the layers 105 and 205 such that a fraction of transmitted UV light 400-2 passes through. Theoretically, the transmission coefficient for a multilayer optical structure as a function of the refractive indices and thicknesses of the layers 105 and 205 can be determined from the Fresnel equations given the angle of incidence. The refractive indices (and extinctions coefficients) of the glass substrate 105 and UV cured layer 205 are generally wavelength dependent. The thicknesses of each layer 105 and 205 also affect the wavelength dependence, e.g., due to resonances. Thus, the transmission coefficient generally depends on the wavelength of light and can be optimized to suppress UV light 400 of certain wavelengths (e.g., using various multilayer optimization methods). Theoretical calculations can be compared with experimental results to confirm desired performance. [0107] FIG.9B is a graph illustrating the transmission efficiency (T %) of a perovskite solar cell as a function of wavelength. The perovskite solar cell is configured according to FIG.1B with a UV cured layer applied. The wavelength range in the graph of FIG.9B is from 250 nm to 350 nm, corresponding to a portion of the UV electromagnetic spectrum in the middle UV and near UV ranges. As shown in the graph, the transmission efficiency is less than 100 % for wavelengths between 250 nm and 350 nm. Particularly, the transmission efficiency is less than 90 % for wavelengths between 250 nm and 310 nm, less than 80 % for wavelengths between 250 nm and 290 nm, less than 60 % for wavelengths between 250 nm and 280 nm, and less than 55 % for wavelengths between 250 nm and 270 nm. The UV cured layer is responsible for this reduced transmission efficiency, blocking some of the UV radiation from the perovskite solar cell. That is, the UV cured layer reflects and/or absorbs some of the UV radiation and consequently protects the perovskite solar cell from damaging UV light. [0108] FIG.10A features a photograph of a perovskite solar module 240a without a UV cured layer after a stress test. The solar module 240a underwent a 5 hour stress test at 75 °C. FIG.10B features a photograph of a perovskite solar module 240b with a UV cured layer after a stress test. The solar module 240b underwent a stress test for 100 hours at 75 °C. Compared to the solar module 240b with the UV cured layer, the solar module 240a without Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 the UV cured layer shows signs of degradation, as seen in the circular dashed line region. The solar module 240a without the UV cured layer has discolorations indicating breakdown of the perovskite into PbI2, while the solar module 240b with the UV cured layer sees no signs of breakdown, despite the solar module 240b undergoing a significantly longer (20 times longer) stress test. [0109] FIGs.11A and 11B are graphs illustrating the performance of the perovskite solar modules 240a and 240b during the stress tests at 75 °C. The graphs in FIGs.11A and 11B measure the power generated by the solar modules 240a and 240b, respectively, over a period of time with a constant illumination source. FIG.11B illustrates remaining factor for the maximum power Pmax, the current at the maximum power Imp, and the voltage of the maximum power Vmp. Pmax and Imp roughly overlap and gradually decrease, while Vmp remains roughly stable for 600 hours before starting to gradually decrease. Referring to FIG. 10A, after 5 hours at 75 °C, solar module 240a without UV cured layer retained approximately 60 % of its initial power conversion efficiency (PCE). By contrast, solar module 240b with UV cured layer retained greater than 90% of its initial PCE after 200 hours at 75 °C. [0110] As shown in FIGs.10B and 11B, solar module 240b with UV cured layer shows little degradation even over extended test times. The slow degradation is due to the UV cured layer, as well as a combination of factors such as the composition of the perovskite layer and the quality of the encapsulation of the perovskite layer. The solar module 240b, as well as other example solar modules using the UV curable encapsulations described herein, can achieve performance metrics that pass a standardized testing requirement. For example, such a module can pass reliability tests like the IEC 61215 and/or IEC 61646 standards, and even exceed the performance of these standards (e.g., still pass the standards after 4000 hours of testing). [0111] FIGs.12A-12C are graphs illustrating the performance of various perovskite solar modules during extended 85 °C at 85% relative humidity (85°C/85%) reliability tests. [0112] FIG.12A shows the performance over time of a perovskite solar module with an encapsulant and an edge seal, but without a UV cured layer. The corresponding graph plots the normalized maximum power Pmax as a function of time. FIG.12B shows the performance of a perovskite solar module 800a with an encapsulant, two UV cured layers, and an edge seal configured as in FIG.8A. FIG.12C shows the performance of a perovskite solar module 800b with a UV cured layer and an edge seal configured as in FIG.8B. Both FIGs.12B and 12C illustrate the normalized variables: maximum power Pmax (solid line), the fill factor FF Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 (short dash dot line), the open circuit voltage Voc (short dash line), and short current density Jsc (long dash line) as functions of time. Normalized variables correspond to variables divided by their respective initial values. Comparing FIG.12A to FIGs.12B and 12C, the solar modules with the UV cured layer (800a and 800b) show little degradation even over relatively long test times. The normalized maximum power of the solar module without a UV cured layer steadily decreases in FIG.12A, resulting in the solar module not passing the reliability test, while the measured values in FIGs.12B and 12C are roughly the same or even greater after 1000 hours. [0113] FIG.3 is a flow chart of a fabrication process 300 for forming a perovskite photovoltaic, e.g., the perovskite solar module 200 of FIG.2. The process 300 includes generating a substrate supporting a first transparent conducting layer and a hole transport layer (310). In some cases, a pre-formed substrate may instead be provided. [0114] FIG.4 is a flowchart of operation 310 of FIG.3. Operation 310 includes providing a substrate (311). The substrate may be a transparent substrate. The substrate may include a silicon-based glass (e.g., an amorphous silicon dioxide, a doped silicon dioxide, etc.), a transparent conductive oxide, a ceramic, a chalcogenide glass, a polymer (e.g., a transparent plastic, poly(methyl methacrylate, etc.), or the like, or any combination thereof. The substrate may include a top surface of a solar module. For example, the substrate may be a top glass sheet of a silicon solar panel assembly. The substrate may be textured and/or patterned. For example, the substrate may include nano-scale texturing configured as an antireflective coating and an adhesion surface. In another example, the substrate may include patterning configured to generate photonic channels. In another example, the substrate may include pre- patterned portions with electrodes for removing energy from the solar cell (e.g., a top contact grid layout). The substrate may have an area of at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, or more square meters. The substrate may have an area of at most about 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1, or fewer square meters. The substrate may be a large format substrate. For example, the substrate can be a 10th generation substrate. [0115] Operation 310 includes applying one or more first transparent conductive materials to the substrate to form a first transparent conducting layer (312). The first transparent conducting layer may include a transparent conductive oxide (e.g., indium tin oxide (ITO), indium zinc oxide, aluminum zinc oxide, indium cadmium oxide, etc.), a transparent conductive polymer (e.g., poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), poly(3,4- ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), poly(4,4-dioctyl Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 cyclopentadithiophene), etc.), carbon nanotubes, graphene, nanowires (e.g., silver nanowires), metallic grids (e.g., grid contacts including metals), thin films (e.g., thin metal films), conductive grain boundaries, or the like, or any combination thereof. The first transparent conducting layer may have a full spectrum transparency of at least about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, or more. The first transparent conducting layer may have a full spectrum transparency of at most about 99.9%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, or less. The first transparent conducting layer may have a full spectrum transparency in a range as defined by any two of the proceeding values. For example, the first transparent conducting layer can have a full spectrum transparency of 75% to 85%. The first transparent conducting layer may have a transparency over a spectral band of at least about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, or more. The first transparent conducting layer may have a transparency over a spectral band of at most about 99.9%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, or less. For example, the first transparent conducting layer can have a transmission of 85% over the wavelength range from 400 nm to 1200 nm. The first transparent conducting layer can function as a barrier to the perovskite layer for moisture, gas, dust, and the like. The first transparent conducting layer can also prevent the diffusion of ions (e.g., metal ions) which may impact the performance of the perovskite layer. [0116] Operation 310 includes applying a hole transport layer to the first transparent conducting layer (313). The hole transport layer is configured to shuttle holes from an absorbing layer to the first transparent conducting layer and out of the solar module. The hole transport layer may include organic molecules (e.g., 2, 2', 7,7'- Tetrakis[N,N-di(4- methoxyphenyl)amino]-9,9'-spirobifluorene (Spiro-OMeTAD)), inorganic oxides (e.g., nickel oxide (NiOx), copper oxide (CuOx), cobalt oxide (CoOx), chromium oxide (CrOx), vanadium oxide (VOx), tungsten oxide (WOx), molybdenum oxide (Mo Ox), copper aluminum oxide (CuAlO2), copper chromium oxide (CuCrO2), copper gallium oxide (CuGaO2), etc.), inorganic chalcogenides (e.g., copper iodide (Cui), copper indium sulfide (CuInS2), copper zinc tin sulfide (CuZnSnS4), cupper barium tin sulfide (CuBaSnS4), etc.) other inorganic materials (e.g., copper thiocyanate (CuSCN), etc.), organic polymers, or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, a glass substrate covered in indium tin oxide can be coated with nickel oxide to form a hole transport layer on the transparent conducting layer. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0117] Operation 310 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations on the hole transport layer (314). The one or more lithography operations may include optical lithography (e.g., (extreme) ultraviolet lithography, x-ray lithography, laser scribing, etc.), electron beam lithography, ion beam lithography, nanoimprint lithography, other direct writing processes (e.g., dip-pen lithography, inkjet printing), or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, a number of features (e.g., P1 scribe features) can be inscribed onto the hole transport layer and the underlying first transparent conducting layer using a laser scribe. The one or more lithography operations may include the addition and/or subtraction of features. For example, features can be cured and made permanent. In another example, features can be formed by the removal of material from the target. [0118] Returning to FIG.3, the process 300 includes applying one or more perovskite precursors to the hole transport layer (320). The applying may include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma enhanced CVD, atomic layer deposition, spin coating, dip coating, doctor blading, drop casting, centrifugal casting, chemical solution deposition, sol-gel deposition, plating, physical vapor deposition, thermal evaporation, molecular beam epitaxy, sputtering, pulsed laser deposition, cathodic arc deposition, ultrasonic spray-on, inkjet printing, or the like, or any combination thereof. The applying may include the application of a single perovskite precursor at a time. For example, a first perovskite precursor can be evaporated onto the hole transport layer, and subsequently a second perovskite precursor can be sprayed onto the first precursor. The applying may include applying a number of precursors at one time. For example, an inkjet printer can apply a solution including a number of precursors. The process 300 optionally includes applying one or more additional perovskite precursors to the hole transport layer (330). The additional perovskite layers may be applied in the same way as in operation 320. For example, a first precursor can be deposited by physical vapor deposition, and subsequently a second precursor can be deposited by physical vapor deposition. Alternatively, the additional perovskite layer may be applied in a different way from operation 320. For example, a first perovskite precursor can be deposited by physical vapor deposition while a second perovskite precursor can be deposited by ultrasonic spray. Operation 330 may be repeated a number of times. For example, a number of additional perovskite precursors can be applied to the hole transport layer in a number of operations. [0119] The ultrasonic spray-on application may include the use of a number of spray nozzles. The ultrasonic spray-on process may include the use of a single spray nozzle. For example, the single spray nozzle can be configured to raster across the application area to Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 provide coverage of the area. A number of different types of spray nozzles may be tested for formation of a predetermined uniformity and/or thickness of the film deposited by the spray nozzle, and an optimal spray nozzle may be selected from the different types of spray nozzles. Once an optimal spray nozzle is selected, a number of that type of nozzle may be used in the ultrasonic spray-on application. The nozzles may form a bank of nozzles configured to spray over a large area to improve throughput and efficiency. The bank of nozzles may be a strip of nozzles (e.g., a line of nozzles across a single dimension), a two- dimensional arrangement of nozzles (e.g., nozzles distributed over a rectangular shape), a three-dimensional arrangement of nozzles (e.g., a number of nozzles distributed in three dimensions). The spray nozzles may be adjusted to dispense at an angle. The angle may be at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, or more degrees off of a parallel line from the substrate. The angle may be at most about 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less degrees off of a parallel line from the substrate. The angle may be configured to reduce or eliminate the precursor missing the substrate and fouling other components of the manufacturing process. Use of an ultrasonic spray-on application can enable a roll to roll inline fabrication process. In the roll to roll inline fabrication process, a series of nozzle banks can each sequentially add different layers to a substrate, the substrate can be processed (e.g., annealed, laser scribed, etc.), and a finished photovoltaic cell can be generated on a single line. Using a roll to roll process can result in significant improvements in cost and speed of production as compared to step by step manufacture processes. [0120] The one or more perovskite precursors may include one or more lead halides (e.g., lead fluoride, lead chloride, lead bromide, lead iodide, etc.), lead salts (e.g., lead acetates, lead oxides, etc.), other metal salts (e.g., manganese halides, tin halides, metal oxides, metal halides, etc.), organohalides (e.g., formamidinium chloride, formamidinium bromide, formamidinium iodide, methylammonium chloride, methylammonium bromide, methylammonium iodide, butylammonium halides, etc.), alkali metal salts (e.g., alkali metal halides, etc.), alkali earth metal salts (e.g., alkali earth metal halides, etc.), perovskite nanoparticles, or the like, or any combination thereof. A number of perovskite precursors can be used as the one or more perovskite precursors. For example, both methylammonium iodide and butylammonium iodide can be used as perovskite precursors. In this example, the methylammonium iodide can be at about a 1:99, 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, 40:60, 50:50, 60:40, 70:30, 80:20, 10:90, or 99:1 ratio with the butylammonium iodide. In another example, mixtures of lead halides can be used as a portion of the perovskite precursors. Using different Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 mixtures of lead halides may permit tuning of the bandgap of the perovskite layer. For example, using different mixtures of lead (II) bromide and lead (II) iodide can result in different bandgaps. Using different amounts of lead (II) chloride can affect the crystal stability of the perovskite layer and can prevent phase segregation within the layer. The amount of lead (II) chloride added may be greater than the amount of lead (II) bromide added by weight. The amount of lead (II) chloride added may be less than the amount of lead (II) bromide added by weight. The amount of lead (II) chloride added may be the same as the amount of lead (II) bromide added by weight. The amount of lead (II) iodide soluble in a solution may be related to the amount of lead (II) bromide and lead (II) chloride in the solution. For example, adding in more lead (II) bromide and lead (II) chloride to a solution of lead (II) iodide can improve solubility of the lead (II) iodide and result in decreased particulate in the perovskite layer. [0121] The one or more perovskite precursors may be one or more perovskite precursor solutions. For example, a lead (II) iodide solution in a solution of dimethyl sulfoxide can be a perovskite precursor. A perovskite precursor may be in a solution of at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99, or more weight percent perovskite precursor. A perovskite precursor may be in a solution of at most about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1, or less weight percent perovskite precursor. The solution may include one or more solvents. Examples of solvents include, but are not limited to, polar solvents (e.g., water, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide, ethers, esters, acetates, acetone, etc.), non-polar solvents (e.g., hexanes, toluene, etc.), or the like, or any combination thereof. Proper mixing of the solvent as well as solvent composition can contribute to controlled solvent removal speeds and thus impact grain development as well as bulk defect formation. Tuning the interaction of the coordination strength of a solvent and the evaporation rate of a precursor solution can enable better control of the perovskite film that is formed as well as the reaction kinetics of the formation. For example, a weakly coordinating solvent that quickly evaporates may form a more disordered film, but may also result in less residual solvent being present in the film. Mixtures of solvents can improve solute solubility, decrease evaporation rates, improve performance of application methods, and the like. For example, a combination of NMP and DMSO can increase solute solubility and decrease solvent evaporation rates. In this example, the properties of the NMO/DMSO mixture can decrease premature crystallization of perovskite and improve film quality. In another Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 example, adding NMP to DMF can increase spray width of the solution through an ultrasonic spray on apparatus, which can provide greater flexibility in the spray on parameters used. [0122] The one or more perovskite precursors may include one or more additives. The addition of the one or more additives may be configured to reduce and/or eliminate defects within perovskite layers as prepared elsewhere herein. The one or more additives may include one or more recrystallization solvents. The one or more recrystallization solvents may be added to a solution including the one or more perovskite precursors. The one or more recrystallization solvents may be applied after deposition of the one or more perovskite precursors and/or after an annealing of the one or more perovskite precursors. For example, a lead halide precursor can be applied and subsequently a recrystallization solvent can be applied, and the perovskite precursors can be further annealed to orient the lead halide precursor for better methylammonium iodide integration. Examples of recrystallization solvents include, but are not limited to, halobenzenes (e.g., chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, etc.), haloforms (e.g., chloroform, iodoform, etc.), ethers (e.g., diethyl ether), or the like, or any combination thereof. [0123] A variety of parameters may be tuned to provide a predetermined perovskite layer. Examples of parameters include, but are not limited to, perovskite precursor solution application temperature, volume application rate, ultrasonic power of an ultrasonic spray-on instrument, lateral speed of precursor application (e.g., the speed of a substrate moving through an applicator), applicator height (e.g., the distance from an applicator to the substrate, environmental factors (e.g., humidity, reactive gas content, temperature, etc.), wetting surface energy, or the like, or any combination thereof. Any portion of process 300, including the application of the perovskite precursors, may take place in a controlled environment. The controlled environment may have a relative humidity of at least about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 99%, or more. The controlled environment may have a relative humidity of at most about 99%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, 10%, or less. The controlled environment may include a controlled atmosphere. The controlled atmosphere may include inert gasses (e.g., nitrogen, noble gases, etc.). The controlled atmosphere may have an oxygen content of at least about 1 part per million (ppm), 10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm, 500 ppm, 1,000 ppm, 5,000, ppm, 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, or more. The controlled atmosphere may have an oxygen content of at most about 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 1%, 5,000 ppm, 1,000 pm, 500 ppm, 100 ppm, 50 ppm, 10 ppm, 1 ppm, or less. The controlled atmosphere may be at a temperature of at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 190, 200, or more degrees Celsius. The controlled atmosphere may be at a temperature of at most about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, or less degrees Celsius. [0124] The process 300 includes performing one or more processing operations to the perovskite precursors to generate a perovskite layer (340). If the perovskite precursors are instead deposited as a completed perovskite layer, operation 340 can be omitted. FIG.5 is a flowchart of operation 340 of FIG.3. Operation 340 includes providing a substrate supporting a first transparent conducting layer, a hole transport layer, and one or more applied perovskite precursors (341). The substrate may be a result of operations 310 - 330 of process 300. [0125] Operation 340 includes performing one or more processing operations on the perovskite precursors to generate a perovskite layer (342). The one or more processing operations may include annealing, light exposure (e.g., ultraviolet light exposure), agitation (e.g., vibration), functionalization (e.g., surface functionalization), electroplating, template inversion, or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, a substrate with perovskite precursors can be annealed to form a perovskite layer from the precursors. In another example, perovskite precursors can be annealed and subsequently functionalized. The annealing may be annealing under inert atmosphere (e.g., argon atmosphere, nitrogen atmosphere). The annealing may be under a reactive atmosphere (e.g., an atmosphere including a reagent (e.g., methylammonium)). The annealing may be at a temperature of at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, or more degrees Celsius. The annealing may be at a temperature of at most about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, or less degrees Celsius. The annealing may be at a temperature range as defined by any two of the proceeding values. For example, the annealing can be at a temperature of 90 to 120 degrees Celsius. The annealing may be for a time of at least about 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, or more minutes. The annealing may be for a time of at most about 120, 105, 75, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, or less minutes. The annealing may be for a time range as defined by any two of the proceeding values. For example, the annealing can be for a time of about 5 to about 15 minutes. There may be a number of annealing processes applied to the substrate. For example, a substrate can be annealed at a first time and temperature, and subsequently annealed again at a second Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 time and temperature. Such additional annealing processes can reduce the number of defects present in the perovskite layer and improve performance. [0126] Operation 340 optionally includes applying one or more additional layers to the perovskite layer (343). The one or more additional layers may include one or more additional perovskite layers. For example, a second perovskite layer with a different bandgap can be applied to the first perovskite layer. The one or more additional layers may include one or more additional perovskite precursors. For example, iodine gas can be applied to form an iodine layer on a perovskite and/or perovskite precursor layer. The one or more additional layers may include one or more washing operations. A washing operation may include an application of a solvent to the perovskite layer. Examples of solvents include, but are not limited to, water, non-polar organic solvents (e.g., hexanes, toluene, etc.), polar organic solvents (e.g., methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, acetone, etc.), ionic solvents, or the like. The one or more additional layers may include one or more passivating layers. A passivating layer may include a reagent configured to passivate and/or stabilize the perovskite layer. For example, an application of a solution including phenethylammonium iodide can passivate and stabilize the grains of the perovskite layer. [0127] Operation 340 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations on the one or more additional layers and/or the perovskite layer (344). The one or more lithography operations may be one or more lithography operations as described elsewhere herein. For example, a laser scribe can be used to generate features (e.g., P2 scribe features) on the perovskite layer and one or more of the underlying layers. [0128] Returning to FIG.3, the process 300 includes applying an electron transport layer to the perovskite layer (350). FIG.6 is a flow chart of operation 350 of FIG.3. Operation 350 includes providing a substrate supporting a first transparent conducting layer, a hole transport layer, and a perovskite layer (351). The substrate may be a substrate generated by operations 310 - 340 of FIG.3. [0129] Operation 350 includes applying an electron transport layer to the perovskite layer (352). The electron transport layer may be applied by methods and systems as described elsewhere herein (e.g., physical vapor deposition, ultrasonic spray-on, etc.). The electron transport layer may include a material with a conduction band minimum less than that of the perovskite layer. For example, if the perovskite layer has a conduction band minimum of -3.9 eV, the electron transport layer may have a conduction band minimum of -4 eV. Examples of electron transport layer materials include, but are not limited to, titanium oxide (e.g., TiO2), zinc oxide, tin oxide, tungsten oxide, indium oxide, niobium oxide, iron oxide, cerium oxide, Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 strontium titanium oxide, zinc tin oxide, barium tin oxide, cadmium selenide, indium sulfide, lead iodide, organic molecules (e.g., phenyl-C61 -butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM), poly(3- hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT), etc.), lithium fluoride, buckminsterfullerene (C60), or the like, or any combination thereof. [0130] Operation 350 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations on the electron transport layer (353). The one or more lithography operations may be one or more lithography operations as described elsewhere herein. For example, a laser scribe can be used to generate features on the electron transport layer and one or more of the underlying layers. [0131] Returning to FIG.3, the process 300 includes applying a second transparent conducting layer to the electron transport layer (360). FIG.7 is a flow chart of operation 360 of FIG.3. Operation 360 includes providing a substrate supporting a first transparent conducting layer, a hole transport layer, a perovskite layer, and an electron transport layer (371). The substrate may be a substrate generated by operations 310 - 350 of FIG.3. [0132] Operation 360 includes applying a second transparent conducting layer to the electron transport layer (362). The second transparent conducting layer may be of the same type as the first transparent conducting layer. For example, both the first and second transparent conducting layers may be indium tin oxide. The second transparent conducting layer may be of a different type as the first transparent conducting layer. The second transparent conducting layer may be deposited as described elsewhere herein (e.g., physical vapor deposition, etc.). [0133] Operation 360 optionally includes applying one or more busbars to the second transparent conducting layer (363). The one or more busbars may be applied as busbars (e.g., preformed busbars are applied to the second transparent conducting layer). For example, a mask can be used to form the busbars from an evaporation process. The one or more busbars may be applied as a solid film and subsequently formed into the busbars. For example, a silver film can be deposited onto the second transparent conducting layer and etched to form the busbars. In another example, a laser scribe can be used to form the busbars from a silver film. [0134] Operation 360 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations on the electron transport layer (364). The one or more lithography operations may be one or more lithography operations as described elsewhere herein. For example, a laser scribe can be used to generate features (e.g., P3 scribe features) on the second transparent conducting layer and one or more of the underlying layers. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0135] The busbars may be attached to at least about 2, 3, 4, or more terminals. The busbars may be attached to at most about 4, 3, 2, or less terminals. The terminals may be configured to form a parallel connection with one or more additional photovoltaic modules. The terminals may be configured to form a series connection with one or more additional photovoltaic modules. The terminals may be scribed (e.g., laser scribed). The terminals may be configured to enable connection of a perovskite photovoltaic device with another photovoltaic device prior to a lamination of the two photovoltaic devices. For example, a perovskite photovoltaic device can be connection via two terminals to a silicon photovoltaic device. [0136] Returning to FIG.3, the process 300 includes applying an ultraviolet curable compound to the second transparent conducting layer (370). Examples of ultraviolet curable compounds include various photopolymers such as resins (e.g., epoxy resins) and acrylate- based compositions that are curable with ultraviolet light, as well as others described elsewhere herein. Ultraviolet curable compounds may include one or more photoinitators (e.g., free radical or ionic photoinitators) to activate curing when exposed to ultraviolet light. In some embodiments, the ultraviolet curable compound may be applied in the form of a mixture that includes one or more additives (e.g., other encapsulants) such as those described elsewhere herein. The ultraviolet curable compound can be applied over scribe features, e.g., P1-P3 scribe features, for protection and structural stability. The ultraviolet curable compound may be applied to the first transparent conducting layer as well as the second transparent conducting layer. For example, the ultraviolet curable compound can be supported between the substrate and the first transparent conducting layer. The ultraviolet curable compound may be applied across the second transparent conducting layer (e.g., applied to the whole layer), to a portion of the second transparent conducting layer (e.g., a portion of the layer), to the edges of the second transparent conducting layer (e.g., as a seal over the entire stack of layers), or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, the ultraviolet curable compound can be applied on the edge (e.g., as an edge seal) of the full stack of layers to prevent moisture and oxygen diffusion into the stack. [0137] The process 300 optionally includes applying an encapsulant to the ultraviolet curable compound (370). The ultraviolet curable compound and encapsulant may be configured to reduce or substantially eliminate an exposure of the perovskite layer to one or more reactive species. The ultraviolet curable compound and encapsulant may be substantially transparent. For example, the ultraviolet curable compound and encapsulant may be transparent in a same region of light as the second transparent conducting layer. The Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 ultraviolet curable compound and encapsulant may have refractive indices similar to the second transparent conducting layer. The ultraviolet curable compound and encapsulant may be configured to reduce or substantially eliminate an exposure of the perovskite layer to one or more reactive species. Examples of reactive species include, but are not limited to, oxygen, water, and polar molecules (e.g., polar volatile organic compounds, acids, etc.). Examples of encapsulants include, but are not limited to, PDMS, HelioSeal™, silicon glue, butyl-based sealants, or the like. If used for edge encapsulation as an edge seal, the encapsulant may include tape. The tape may be an adhesive backed barrier. The encapsulant may be placed such that the encapsulant ends at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, or more millimeters from the edge. The encapsulant may be place such that the encapsulant ends at most about 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or fewer millimeters from the edge. [0138] Operation 300 includes curing the ultraviolet curable compound with ultraviolet light (380). For example, the ultraviolet curable compound can be exposed to ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, an ultraviolet lamp, one or more ultraviolet lasers or other light sources, or combinations thereof. The ultraviolet curable compound can be cured before and/or after application of the encapsulant. If the perovskite photovoltaic is integrated in a silicon-perovskite tandem solar cell, the ultraviolet curable compound can also be cured after mating with the silicon panel. [0139] FIG.13 is a flow chart of a fabrication process 1300 for forming a perovskite layer. The process 1300 may be one embodiment of operations 320-340 of FIG.3. The process 1300 includes providing a substrate including a hole transport layer (1310). The substrate may also include a transparent conducting layer as described elsewhere herein. The hole transport layer may be a hole transport layer as described elsewhere herein. The substrate may be a substrate as described elsewhere herein. [0140] The process 1300 includes applying a lead layer to the hole transport layer (1320). The lead layer may include lead metal (e.g., lead (0)), lead salts (e.g., lead (II) acetate, lead (II) halide, lead (I) salts, etc.), or any combination thereof. For example, a metallic lead layer may be deposited onto the hole transport layer, and a layer of lead (II) acetate may be applied to the lead layer. The lead layer may be deposited as described elsewhere herein. For example, the lead may be deposited by physical vapor deposition. The lead layer may be deposited by the same deposition method and/or deposition machinery as the hole transport layer. For example, the same physical vapor deposition instrument can be used to deposit both the hole transport layer as well as the lead layer. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0141] The process 1300 includes applying an organic halide salt layer to the lead layer (1330). The organic halide may be an organic halide as described elsewhere herein. For example, a mixture of methylammonium iodide, methylammonium chloride, and formamidinium iodide can be applied to the lead layer. The organic halide layer may be applied by a deposition process as described elsewhere herein. For example, the organic halide can be applied by a spin coating process, an ultrasonic spray-on process, or the like. [0142] The process 1300 includes applying a halide layer to the organic halide layer (1340). The halide layer may include halides (e.g., fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc.), oxyhalides (e.g., chlorate, etc.), other halide containing compounds, or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, the halide layer may include iodine. In another example, the halide layer may be iodine. The halide layer may be applied to the organic halide salt layer by deposition processes as described elsewhere herein. The halide can be applied as a gas. For example, iodine can be sublimated and applied as a gas to the organic halide salt layer. The halide can be applied evenly across the surface of the organic halide salt layer. To apply the halide uniformly, a variety of different application devices can be used. An example of an application device may be a ‘shower head’ (e.g., an application head including a number of holes). Another example of an application device may be a bar including one or more nozzles that can be translated across the surface of the substrate. For example, a bar of the same width as the substrate can be moved across the substrate to deposit an even coat of halide. [0143] The process 1300 includes performing one or more processing operations to form a perovskite layer (1350). The perovskite layer may be a perovskite layer as described elsewhere herein (e.g., a perovskite layer from the process 300 of FIG.3). The one or more processing operations may be one or more processing operations as described elsewhere herein. For example, the lead layer with a lead acetate layer deposited on top of it, a methylammonium iodide/formamidinium iodide layer, and an iodide layer can be annealed together at a temperature of 90-120 degrees Celsius to form a methylammonium/formamidinium lead iodide perovskite layer. The one or more processing operations may include a wash. The wash may include use of one or more solvents described elsewhere herein. The wash may be configured to remove unreacted precursors from the perovskite layer. For example, an isopropanol wash can be performed to remove residual organic halide salts. The one or more processing operations may include one or more treatments. Examples of treatments include, but are not limited to, application of Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 phenethylammonium iodide, thiocyanate washes, other passivation and/or stabilization processes, or the like, or any combination thereof. [0144] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of generating a perovskite layer including spraying on a solution including precursors for the perovskite layer. A quench solution may be applied to the precursors to form the perovskite layer. The solution may include all of the precursors for the perovskite layer. For example, the solution can include a lead halide, an organohalide, and a halide. The solution may include perovskite precursors as described elsewhere herein. The solution may be applied by processes as described elsewhere herein. For example, the solution can be applied by ultrasonic spray on techniques. The solution may be treated after application. For example, the solution can be heated to remove solvent from the solution. The solution may not be treated after application. The quench solution may be applied to a solution (e.g., a precursor solution). The quench solution may be applied to dried precursors. The quench solution may include an antisolvent (e.g., a solvent that the perovskite precursors are less soluble in than the solvent for the precursor solution). Examples of antisolvents include, but are not limited to polar solvents (e.g., alcohols, acetone, etc.), long- chain non-polar solvents (e.g., octadecene, squalene, etc.), or the like, or any combination thereof. The quench solution may be applied as described elsewhere herein. For example, the quench solution may be applied by ultrasonic spray-on techniques. The solution may be subjected to one or more atmospheric conditions to aid in the removal of the solvent. The one or more atmospheric conditions may include reduced pressure (e.g., application of a vacuum), increased pressure (e.g., blowing gas over the substrate), or the like, or a combination thereof. The reduced pressure may include application of a partial vacuum around the substrate. Such a vacuum may pull solvent form the film to effect rapid solvent removal and produce a high quality film. The increased pressure may include use of an air knife or similar blowing scheme to aid in the removal of the solvent. Such high quality films may appear specular under visual inspection. After application of the precursor solution, the solution may be given time to self-level prior to solidification. For example, the precursor solution can be allowed to sit on the substrate for sufficient time to level prior to removal of the solvent and preparation of the perovskite layer. [0145] FIG.14 is a flow chart of a process 2000 for manufacturing a tandem solar module. The process 2000 includes providing a silicon solar panel (2010). The silicon solar panel may be a silicon solar panel as described elsewhere herein. For example, the silicon solar panel may be a front contact solar panel, an integrated back contact solar panel, a shingled solar panel, or the like. The silicon solar panel may have at least about 10, 15, 20, Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 72, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, or more solar cells. The silicon solar panel may have at most about 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 72, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, or less solar cells. In some embodiments, the silicon solar panel has 60 six-inch solar cells arranged in a 6-by-10 grid. The cells may be connected in series. The cells may each have an open circuit voltage of 0.7 V, for a total open circuit voltage of approximately 42 V. [0146] The process 2000 includes fabricating perovskite-on-glass as described elsewhere herein (2020). For example, the perovskite-on-glass can be fabricated using the process 300 of FIG.3. The perovskite-on-glass may have at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more layers. The perovskite-on-glass may have at most about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or less layers. [0147] The process 2000 includes laser scribing the perovskite-on-glass to form perovskite cells or strips (2030). The fabricating may include use of fabrication techniques as described elsewhere herein. For example, the fabricating can include use of a laser scribe to define the one or more perovskite solar cells. The one or more perovskite solar cells may be a number of perovskite solar cells. The one or more perovskite solar cells may be at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99, or more perovskite solar cells. The one or more perovskite solar cells may be at most about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or less perovskite solar cells. The perovskite solar cells may be connected in series. The perovskite solar cells may be connected in parallel. The laser scribing may separate the perovskite layer into a number of segments. The segments may be formed into a number of perovskite solar cells. For example, contacts can be applied to the segments to extract charge from the segments. [0148] The laser scribing may be configured to generate a number of perovskite cells which, when connected together, have a same or substantially same voltage output as the silicon module. The voltage output of the perovskite layer per unit area can be known, and the perovskite layer can be scribed to form perovskite cells of a size to provide a predetermined voltage. For example, a perovskite layer can be scribed to form 5 perovskite sub-modules each including 40 perovskite solar cells to match a silicon solar module that has a same voltage output as the 40 perovskite solar cells. In this example, the 5 perovskite sub- modules can be connected in parallel to increase the current produced by the perovskite layer while maintaining the voltage match with the silicon module. [0149] The process 2000 includes connecting the cells of the silicon solar panel to the perovskite solar cells to form a tandem module (2040). The silicon solar panel and the Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 perovskite solar cells may be in a voltage matched configuration. The voltage matched configuration may be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the silicon solar cells can have the same voltage as the perovskite solar cells. The perovskite solar cells may be connected to one another in parallel. The perovskite solar cells may be connected to one another in series. The perovskite solar cells may be connected such that there are a number of modules in the perovskite layer. For example, rows of the perovskite solar cells can be each connected in series and the connected rows can be connected in parallel. The silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar panel may be connected as described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite solar cells can be connected via copper (or another metal, charge collection tape, etc.) terminals to the same junction box as the silicon solar cells. [0150] The process 2000 includes encapsulating the module with an ultraviolet curable compound (2050). The encapsulating may further include an encapsulant. For example, the encapsulating can include applying the ultraviolet curable compound to the perovskite layer and the encapsulant to the ultraviolet curable compound and/or the silicon solar panel. Additionally, or alternatively, the ultraviolent curable compound can be applied to the perovskite layer or the silicon solar panel in the form of a mixture that includes the ultraviolent curable compound and the encapsulant. [0151] The process 2000 includes curing the ultraviolent curable compound with ultraviolent light (2060). For example, the ultraviolent curable compound can be exposed to ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, an ultraviolet lamp, one or more ultraviolet lasers or other light sources, or combinations thereof. Once cured, the ultraviolent curable compound can bind the mated surfaces of the tandem solar module, providing protection from environmental effects and undesired ultraviolent light. Operation 2060 can be performed at various different intervals depending on the order in which the ultraviolent curable compound and/or an encapsulant is applied during the encapsulation of the tandem module. For example, if operation 2050 includes applying an ultraviolent curable compound, followed by an encapsulant, operation 2060 can be performed before and/or after the encapsulant is applied. [0152] The process 2000 can include applying a number of contacts to the one or more perovskite solar cells to electrically couple the one or more perovskite solar cells. The contacts may be applied using one or more processes as described elsewhere herein. For example, the contacts can be evaporated onto the perovskite solar cells. In another example, the contacts can be lithographically applied to the perovskite solar cells. The method may include applying an encapsulant to the one or more perovskite solar cells. The applying may be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the encapsulant can be applied via Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 evaporation. In another example, the encapsulant can be spread as a viscous solution onto the perovskite solar cell. The encapsulant may be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the encapsulant may be a thermal-plastic polyolefin. The method may include applying an edge seal to the one or more perovskite solar cells. The edge seal may be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the edge seal can be HelioSeal™. [0153] The silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar panel can be electronically coupled to a same junction box. Such coupling to the same junction box can allow for simple integration of the perovskite layer into existing silicon solar modules. Such coupling can also provide for simple installation of the tandem solar module, as there can be a single output from the tandem module instead of multiple outputs. Examples of different electrical network connections for different types of silicon-perovskite hybrid solar modules is described in WO Patent Application No.2022/066707 A1. Perovskite composition and additives. [0154] The perovskite layer described herein may have a composition of MAn1FAn2Csn3PbX3, where MA is methylammonium and FA is formamidinium. n1, n2, and n3 may independently be greater than 0 and/or less than 1. nl + n2 + n3 may equal 1. A perovskite solar cell including said perovskite layer may retain at least about 80% solar conversion efficiency after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at 45 °C. The perovskite layer may be used as described elsewhere herein (e.g., used as an absorbing layer for a perovskite photovoltaic). [0155] In the above equation, X may be selected from the group consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. For example, X can be iodine. X may be a combination of two or more of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. For example, X may be a mixture of chlorine and iodine. The combination may include individual components having a concentration of at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or more percent. The combination may include individual components having a concentration of at most about 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1 or less percent. For example, the combination may be a mixture of about 1% chlorine and 99% iodine. The combination may include individual components having a concentration in a range as defined by any two of the previous values. For example, the combination can be a mixture of about 1% - 5% bromine and about 95% - 99% iodine. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 [0156] In the proceeding formula, nl, n2, and n3 may individually be greater than at least about 0.0001, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.11, 0.12, 0.13, 0.14, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9, 0.95, 0.96, 0.97, 0.98, 0.99, or more. In the proceeding formula, nl, n2, and n3 may individually be less than at most about 0.99, 0.98, 0.97, 0.96, 0.95, 0.9, 0.85, 0.8, 0.75, 0.7, 0.65, 0.6, 0.55, 0.5, 0.45, 0.4, 0.35, 0.3, 0.25, 0.2, 0.15, 0.14, 0.13, 0.12, 0.11, 0.1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05, 0.01, 0.005, 0.001, 0.0005, 0.0001, or less. In the proceeding formula, nl, n2, and n3 may individually have a range as defined by any two of the proceeding values. For example, nl can be about 0.001 to about 0.05, n2 can be about 0.8 to about 0.989, and n3 can be about 0.01 to about 0.15. [0157] The cations of the formula may be as described above (e.g., methylammonium, formamidinium, cesium, butyl ammonium). Examples of other cations that may be used include, but are not limited to, imidazolium, dimethylammonium, guanidinium, ammonium, methylformamidinium, tetramethyl ammonium, trimethylammonium, rubidium, copper, palladium, platinum, silver, gold, rhodium, ruthenium, sodium, potassium, iron, other inorganic cations, other organic cations, or the like, or any combination thereof. The perovskite layer may not include additional additives. For example, the perovskite layer may not include thiocyanate. In another example, the perovskite layer may not include carbamides. The perovskite layer may be configured to provide high performance and longevity without additional additives. The lack of additional additives may provide lower cost and easier manufacturing of the perovskite layer. The inclusion of the cesium cation (or an equivalent alternate cation) may improve the thermal stability of the perovskite layer. For example, the presence of cesium can increase the strength of the molecular bonds of the lead halide structure of the perovskite layer. The cesium ions may also have a lower vapor pressure than organic ions, which may contribute to the thermal stability of the perovskite layer. The inclusion of formamidinium may be more resilient to high temperatures due to their increased molecular weight as compared to other organic cations (e.g., methylammonium). Due to a possible intrinsic instability of a pure formamidinium perovskite, including cesium and/or methylammonium cations can improve the crystalline stability while maintaining thermal stability. Adding too many light organic cations (e.g., methylammonium) can reduce thermal stability. Adding a small percentage of butylammonium iodide can improve the quality of the perovskite layer due to the larger molecular structure of butylammonium being better able to fill the gaps in the perovskite Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 crystalline structure to better passivate defects or imperfects within the crystal, which can in turn achieve higher quality or performance perovskite layers. [0158] The perovskite solar cell may be a perovskite solar cell as described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite solar cell may be a solar cell formed on a top glass of a silicon solar cell. The perovskite layer may retain at least about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99, or more percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and <100 °C. The perovskite layer may retain at most about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, or less percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and <100 °C. The perovskite layer may retain a percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and <100 °C as defined by any two of the proceeding values. [0159] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method. The method may include providing a substrate. A perovskite precursor may be applied to the substrate. The perovskite precursor may be annealed to form a perovskite layer. The perovskite layer may include a composition of MAn1FAn2Csn3PbX3. MA may be methylammonium. FA may be formamidinium. nl, n2, and n3 may independently be greater than 0 and/or less than 1. nl + n2 + n3 may equal 1. A perovskite solar cell including said perovskite layer may retain at least about 80% solar conversion efficiency after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and <100 °C. The perovskite layer may be subjected to an encapsulation lamination process at a temperature of at least about 90 °C. [0160] The temperature of the encapsulation lamination process may be at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, or more degrees Celsius. The temperature of the encapsulation lamination process may be at a temperature of at most about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, or less degrees Celsius. The temperature of the encapsulation lamination process may be in a temperature range as defined by any two of the proceeding values. The encapsulation may be as described elsewhere herein (e.g., with respect to UV cured layers 205-1/205-2 and encapsulant 135 of FIG.1A). [0161] The perovskite solar cell may be a perovskite solar cell as described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite solar cell can be a solar cell formed on a top glass of a Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 silicon solar cell. The perovskite layer may retain at least about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99, or more percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and <100 °C. The perovskite layer may retain at most about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, or less percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and <100 °C. The perovskite layer may retain a percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of illumination under one sun conditions in an air atmosphere at >25 °C and <100 °C as defined by any two of the proceeding values. The perovskite layer may retain at least about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or more percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after the encapsulation lamination process. The perovskite layer may retain at most about 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, or less percent of the initial conversion efficiency value after the encapsulation lamination process. The perovskite layer may retain an efficiency of the initial conversion efficiency value after the encapsulation lamination process as defined by any two of the proceeding values. [0162] The perovskite precursor may be applied as described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite precursor can be applied using an ultrasonic spray-on process. In this example, the precursors can be applied in different spray-on operations (e.g., lead (II) iodide can be applied to a substrate, and methylammonium iodide can be applied to the lead iodide). In another example, the perovskite precursors can be applied in a single operation. In this example, a solution including all of the precursors for the perovskite layer can be applied and annealed to form the perovskite layer. The annealing process may include heating the perovskite layer to at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, or more degrees Celsius. The annealing process may include hating the perovskite layer to at most about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, or less degrees Celsius. The annealing process may include heating the perovskite layer to a temperature range as defined by any two of the proceeding values. [0163] A UV cured layer can be implemented in various examples, such as solar cells that use PDMS as an encapsulant or on the top glass, include or don’t include an ultrathin silver layer, that are fabricated in an inline PVD process, that have electrical connection Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 within a tandem solar module, that include a mixed composition perovskite solar cell, that have scalable manufacturing methods, and that undergo reliability testing and packaging. WO patent application 2022066707 A1, specifically paragraphs 153-184, discuss such examples. The addition of the UV cured layer, can improve the performance, reliability, manufacturability, or a combination thereof of any such solar cells. Computer Systems [0164] The present disclosure provides computer systems that are programmed to implement methods of the disclosure. FIG.15 shows a computer system 1201 that is programmed or otherwise configured to direct the fabrication and manufacturing processes described herein (e.g., physical vapor deposition, ultrasonic spray-on, slot-die etc.) or control power electronics connected to the solar modules described herein. [0165] The computer system 1201 includes a central processing unit (CPU, also “processor” and “computer processor” herein) 1205, which can be a single core or multi core processor, or multiple processors for parallel processing. The computer system 1201 also includes memory 1210 or memory location (e.g., random-access memory, read-only memory, flash memory), electronic storage unit 1215 (e.g., hard disk), communication interface 1220 (e.g., network adapter) for communicating with one or more other systems, and peripheral devices 1225, such as cache, other memory, data storage and/or electronic display adapters. The memory 1210, storage unit 1215, communication interface 1220 and peripheral devices 1225 are in communication with the CPU 1205 through a communication bus (solid lines), such as a motherboard. The storage unit 1215 can be a data storage unit (or data repository) for storing data. The computer system 1201 can be operatively coupled to a computer network (“network”) 1230 with the aid of the communication interface 1220. The network 1230 can be the Internet, an internet and/or extranet, or an intranet and/or extranet that is in communication with the Internet. The network 1230 in some cases is a telecommunication and/or data network. The network 1230 can include one or more computer servers, which can enable distributed computing, such as cloud computing. The network 1230, in some cases with the aid of the computer system 1201, can implement a peer-to-peer network, which may enable devices coupled to the computer system 1201 to behave as a client or a server. [0166] The CPU 1205 can execute a sequence of machine-readable instructions, which can be embodied in a program or software. The instructions may be stored in a memory location, such as the memory 1210. The instructions can be directed to the CPU 1205, which can subsequently program or otherwise configure the CPU 1205 to implement methods of the Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 present disclosure. Examples of operations performed by the CPU 1205 can include fetch, decode, execute, and writeback. [0167] The CPU 1205 can be part of a circuit, such as an integrated circuit. One or more other components of the computer system 1201 can be included in the circuit. In some cases, the circuit is an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC). [0168] The storage unit 1215 can store files, such as drivers, libraries and saved programs. The storage unit 1215 can store user data, e.g., user preferences and user programs. The computer system 1201 in some cases can include one or more additional data storage units that are external to the computer system 1201, such as located on a remote server that is in communication with the computer system 1201 through an intranet or the Internet. [0169] The computer system 1201 can communicate with one or more remote computer systems through the network 1230. For instance, the computer system 1201 can communicate with a remote computer system of a user. Examples of remote computer systems include personal computers (e.g., portable PC), slate or tablet PC’s (e.g., Apple® iPad, Samsung® Galaxy Tab), telephones, Smart phones (e.g., Apple® iPhone, Android-enabled device, Blackberry®), or personal digital assistants. The user can access the computer system 1201 via the network 1230. [0170] Methods as described herein can be implemented by way of machine (e.g., computer processor) executable code stored on an electronic storage location of the computer system 1201, such as, for example, on the memory 1210 or electronic storage unit 1215. The machine executable or machine-readable code can be provided in the form of software. During use, the code can be executed by the processor 1205. In some cases, the code can be retrieved from the storage unit 1215 and stored on the memory 1210 for ready access by the processor 1205. In some situations, the electronic storage unit 1215 can be precluded, and machine-executable instructions are stored on memory 1210. [0171] The code can be pre-compiled and configured for use with a machine having a processer adapted to execute the code or can be compiled during runtime. The code can be supplied in a programming language that can be selected to enable the code to execute in a precompiled or as-compiled fashion. [0172] Aspects of the systems and methods provided herein, such as the computer system 1201, can be embodied in programming. Various aspects of the technology may be thought of as “products” or “articles of manufacture” typically in the form of machine (or processor) executable code and/or associated data that is carried on or embodied in a type of machine readable medium. Machine-executable code can be stored on an electronic storage unit, such Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 as memory (e.g., read-only memory, random-access memory, flash memory) or a hard disk. “Storage” type media can include any or all of the tangible memory of the computers, processors or the like, or associated modules thereof, such as various semiconductor memories, tape drives, disk drives and the like, which may provide non-transitory storage at any time for the software programming. All or portions of the software may at times be communicated through the Internet or various other telecommunication networks. Such communications, for example, may enable loading of the software from one computer or processor into another, for example, from a management server or host computer into the computer platform of an application server. Thus, another type of media that may bear the software elements includes optical, electrical and electromagnetic waves, such as used across physical interfaces between local devices, through wired and optical landline networks and over various air-links. The physical elements that carry such waves, such as wired or wireless links, optical links or the like, also may be considered as media bearing the software. As used herein, unless restricted to non-transitory, tangible “storage” media, terms such as computer or machine “readable medium” refer to any medium that participates in providing instructions to a processor for execution. [0173] Hence, a machine readable medium, such as computer-executable code, may take many forms, including but not limited to, a tangible storage medium, a carrier wave medium or physical transmission medium. Non-volatile storage media include, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as any of the storage devices in any computer(s) or the like, such as may be used to implement the databases, etc. shown in the drawings. Volatile storage media include dynamic memory, such as main memory of such a computer platform. Tangible transmission media include coaxial cables; copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that include a bus within a computer system. Carrier-wave transmission media may take the form of electric or electromagnetic signals, or acoustic or light waves such as those generated during radio frequency (RF) and infrared (IR) data communications. Common forms of computer-readable media therefore include for example: a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, any other magnetic medium, a CD-ROM, DVD or DVD-ROM, any other optical medium, punch cards paper tape, any other physical storage medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a ROM, a PROM and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, any other memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave transporting data or instructions, cables or links transporting such a carrier wave, or any other medium from which a computer may read programming code and/or data. Many of these forms of computer readable media may be Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to a processor for execution. [0174] The computer system 1201 can include or be in communication with an electronic display 1235 that includes a user interface (UI) 1240 for providing, for example, control over fabrication process parameter. Examples of UI’s include, without limitation, a graphical user interface (GUI) and web-based user interface. [0175] Methods and systems of the present disclosure can be implemented by way of one or more algorithms. An algorithm can be implemented by way of software upon execution by the central processing unit 1205. [0176] While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. It is not intended that the invention be limited by the specific examples provided within the specification. While the invention has been described with reference to the aforementioned specification, the descriptions and illustrations of the embodiments herein are not meant to be construed in a limiting sense. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. Furthermore, it shall be understood that all aspects of the invention are not limited to the specific depictions, configurations or relative proportions set forth herein which depend upon a variety of conditions and variables. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the invention. It is therefore contemplated that the invention shall also cover any such alternatives, modifications, variations or equivalents. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the invention and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby. [0177] A number of embodiments are described. Other embodiments are in the following claims.

Claims

Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 WHAT IS CLAIMED IS: 1. A solar module, comprising: a substance comprising a compound curable by ultraviolet light; and a plurality of layers comprising: a first layer of the substance; a first substrate layer comprising glass; and a perovskite solar cell having a first band gap, the perovskite solar cell between the first layer of the substance and the first substrate layer. 2. The solar module of claim 1, further comprising an edge seal surrounding one or more of the plurality of layers. 3. The solar module of claim 2, wherein the edge seal is formed from the substance. 4. The solar module of any preceding claim, wherein the plurality of layers further comprises: a second layer of the substance, the first substrate layer between the second layer of the substance and the perovskite solar cell. 5. The solar module of any preceding claim, wherein the plurality layers further comprise: a second substrate layer comprising glass or a back sheet, the second substrate layer being an outermost layer of the plurality of layers. 6. The solar module of claim 5, wherein the plurality of layers further comprises: an encapsulant layer between the first layer of the substance and the second substrate layer. 7. The solar module of any preceding claim, wherein the perovskite solar cell comprises a photoactive perovskite layer. 8. The solar module of claim 7, wherein the perovskite solar cell further comprises: Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 a first transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer and a second TCO layer, the photoactive perovskite layer between the first and second TCO layers. 9. The solar module of claim 8, wherein the first and second TCO layers are terminals of the perovskite solar cell. 10. The solar module of any of claims 8-9, wherein the perovskite solar cell comprises a plurality of segments separated by sets of scribe lines. 11. The solar module of claim 10, wherein each set of scribe lines comprises P1, P2, and P3 scribe lines. 12. The solar module of any of claims 10-11, wherein the first layer of the substance fills each set of scribe lines. 13. The solar module of any of claims 8-12, wherein the perovskite solar cell further comprises: a hole transport layer (HTL), the HTL between the first TCO layer and the photoactive perovskite layer. 14. The solar module of any of claims 8-13, wherein the perovskite solar cell further comprises: an electron transport layer (ETL), the ETL between the second TCO layer and the photoactive perovskite layer. 15. The solar module of any preceding claim, wherein the first bandgap is in a range from 1.5 electron volts (eV) to 1.9 eV. 16. The solar module of any preceding claim, wherein the plurality of layers further comprises: a silicon solar cell having a second band gap different from the first band gap, the first layer of the substance between the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell. Attorney Docket No.54741-0002WO1 17. The solar module of any preceding claim, wherein the substance has a refractive index of 1.5 or more. 18. The solar module of any preceding claim, wherein the substance is transparent to visible light. 19. The solar module of any preceding claim, wherein the substance absorbs ultraviolet light. 20. The solar module of any preceding claim, wherein the solar module has a transmission efficiency less than 100 % for light having wavelengths of 350 nanometers (nm) or less.
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