WO2022129579A1 - Modulating plant responses to activities of pathogen virulence factors - Google Patents

Abstract

The invention relates to methods of engineering a host to become resistant or increase the resistance of a host to a vector-borne pathogen. In one example, there is a provided a method of engineering a plant to become resistant to phytoplasma.

Description

Modulating plant responses to activities of pathogen virulence factors

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to methods of engineering a host to become resistant or increase the resistance of a host to a vector-borne pathogen. In one example, there is provided a method of engineering a plant to become resistant to phytoplasma.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Vector-borne diseases account for more than 17% of all infectious diseases and cause more than 700,000 deaths annually. They can be caused by parasites, bacteria or viruses. In humans, ticks and fleas are responsible for the spread of Borrelia burgdorferi, the agent of Lyme disease, and Yersinia pestis, the agent of bubonic and pneumonic plague, respectively. Other notable examples include malaria, which is a parasitic infection transmitted by Anopheline mosquitoes, which causes an estimated 219 million cases globally, and results in more than 400,000 deaths every year. Other viral diseases transmitted by vectors include chikungunya fever, Zika virus fever, yellow fever, West Nile fever, Japanese encephalitis (all transmitted by mosquitoes), tick-borne encephalitis (transmitted by ticks). Vector-borne diseases also include Chagas disease (transmitted by triatomine bugs), leishmaniasis (sandflies) and schistosomiasis (snails) affect hundreds of millions of people worldwide.

In plants, sap-feeding insects that feed from the plant vasculature, such as leafhoppers, froghoppers and psyllids, transmit a plethora of plant viruses and the plant pathogenic bacteria Xylella fastidiosa, Liberibacter species and phytoplasmas that have destroyed major crop productions and spread worldwide. These bacteria produce effectors, which are translocated to hosts to modulate specific host processes, such as immune responses, and promote bacterial colonisation. Bacterial effectors that influence processes within humans, vertebrate animals and plants have been functionally described. However, no mechanisms of host resistance to these vector-borne pathogens are known.

Phytoplasmas are obligate insect-vectored plant pathogens that are invasive colonisers of both plants (Kingdom Plantae) and insect vectors (Kingdom Animalia). These bacteria belong to a large group in the class Mollicutes that also includes human and animal mycoplasma pathogens and that are characterised by small cells enveloped in a single membrane, the absence of cell walls and small genomes. Phytoplasmas often replicate intracellularly and colonise most tissues of their insect vectors with colonisation of salivary glands being required for pathogen inoculation into the plant vasculature. In plants, phytoplasmas migrate throughout the plant within the phloem sieve cells of the vascular system and often induce massive changes in plant architecture, such as the retrograde development of flowers into leaf-like organs (phyllody) and excessive proliferation of axillary shoots (witches’ brooms). Multiple candidate phytoplasma effectors have been identified in the genomes of phytoplasma, but to date the plant targets of only a few of these effectors have been functionally characterised. These include SAP11 and homologous effectors that bind and destabilise plant transcription factors of the TCP family, resulting in changes in stem proliferation and leaf shape, and SAP54/phyllogens that bind and degrade MADS-box transcription factors, leading to the induction of leaf-like flowers. SAP11 and SAP54 also promote plant susceptibility to phytoplasma insect vectors, a phenotype that likely aids phytoplasma dispersal. SAP11 and SAP54 target plant-specific proteins, and hence are unlikely to modulate similar processes in both plant and insect vectors.

There is a need therefore to increase the resistance of a host, such as a plant or animal to a vector-borne pathogen. In a specific example, there is the need to increase resistance of plants to phytoplasma pathogens. The present invention addresses these needs.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

We have functionally characterised the phytoplasma effector SAP05. This effector interacted with plant proteins that are highly conserved among organisms, including arthropods, and induced extensive architectural changes in plants, but did not interact with homologous targets of insects. Using insect-guided engineering, we modified the plant to become resistant to manipulation by the bacterial effector and become less susceptible to the insect vector. Our work reveals a new strategy for engineering resistance against insect-vectored plant diseases that is applicable to other vector-borne or multi-host vector-borne pathogen systems. In one aspect of the invention there is provided a method of providing resistance or increasing resistance of a host to a vector-borne pathogen, the method comprising: a. identifying at least one host protein that is the target of at least one pathogen effector; b. identifying at least one homologue of the host target protein in the vector; c. comparing the nucleic acid or protein sequence of the host target and vector homologue and identifying one or more differences in the nucleic acid or protein sequence between the host and vector nucleic acid or protein sequence; and d. introducing said one or more differences in nucleic acid or protein sequence into the host target protein; wherein introduction of one or more of the differences increases resistance to the vector-borne pathogen.

In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a genetically altered plant, part thereof or plant cell, wherein the plant comprises at least one mutation in at least one RPN10 gene.

Preferably, the mutation is a loss of function mutation. More preferably, the mutation is in the N-terminal vWA (von Willebrand factor type A) domain of RPN10, wherein preferably the sequence of the vWA domain comprises or consists of SEQ ID NO: 47 or a homologue or variant thereof.

In one embodiment, the mutation is at position 38 and 39 of SEQ ID NO: 18 or at a homologous position in a homologous sequence. Preferably, the mutation is a substitution.

In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a seed obtained or obtainable from the plant of the invention.

In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of increasing resistance of a plant to vector-borne pathogen, the method comprising introducing at least one mutation into at least one RPN10 gene. Preferably, the method comprises increasing the resistance of a plant. In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of producing a plant with increased resistance to a vector borne pathogen, the method comprising introducing at least one mutation into at least one RPN10 gene.

In one embodiment, the vector-borne pathogen is a bacteria, preferably a phytoplasma.

In one embodiment, the mutation is a loss of function mutation. Preferably, the mutation is a mutation is in the N-terminal vWA (von Willebrand factor type A) domain of RPN10, wherein preferably the sequence of the vWA domain comprises or consists of SEQ ID NO: 47 or a homologue or variant thereof. More preferably, the mutation is at position 38 and 39 of SEQ ID NO: 18 or at a homologous position in a homologous sequence. Preferably, the mutation is a substitution.

In one embodiment, the mutation is introduced using targeted genome editing.

In one embodiment, the genetically altered plant is a monocot or dicot. Preferably, the plant is selected from rice, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, potato, tomato, cotton, soybean, Brassica napus, cabbage, lettuce, carrot, asters, coconut, grape, apple, oranges and sugarcane. Preferably, the plant part is a seed.

In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for identifying and/or selecting a plant that will have increased resistance to phytoplasma infection, the method comprising detecting in the plant or plant germplasm at least one polymorphism in the RPN10 gene. Preferably, the polymorphism prevents binding of a phytoplasma effector protein, wherein preferably the phytoplasma effector protein is SAP05. More preferably, the polymorphism is in the N-terminal vWA (von Willebrand factor type A) domain of RPN10, wherein preferably the sequence of the vWA domain comprises or consists of SEQ ID NO: 47 or a homologue or variant thereof.

In one embodiment, the polymorphism is at position 38 and 39 of SEQ ID NO: 18 or at a homologous position in a homologous sequence.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The invention is further described in the following non-limiting figures: Figure 1 shows that the phytoplasma effector SAP05 induces developmental changes in A. thaliana. a-c, Representative phenotypes of plants stably producing SAP05 or GFP (control). Plants were grown under short-day (SD) conditions, and images were obtained at 4 weeks (a), 7 weeks (b) and 10 weeks (c) after germination. Arrowheads in a indicate leaf serrations of GFP plants as opposed to the smoother leaf edges of SAP05 plants. Scale bars, 1 cm. Insets in c show enlarged images of mature flowers with the same magnification, d-g, Statistic analyses of phenotypes shown in a-c: numbers of rosette leaves of 4-week-old plants (d) and time of shoot emergence from rosettes (bolting time; e), number of shoots emerging from rosettes (lateral shoot number; f) and plant height (g) of 10-week-old plants. Each data point (black or red dots) represents one transgenic line and the columns showing the means ± s.d. of these data points. DAG, day after germination. *, P < 0.05, two-tailed unpaired Student’s t-tests. h, Percentage of M. quadrilineatus nymphs produced in choice fecundity assays between GFP- and SAP05- expressing plants (two independent lines of the latter were tested). Data are mean ± s.d. from three independent biological replicates; *, P < 0.05, /2 test.

Figure 2 shows SAP05 degrades plant GATA and SPL transcription factors via the plant 26S proteasomal ubiquitin receptor RPN10. a, Locations of the zinc-finger (ZnF) domains in representative proteins of the A. thaliana (At) GATA and SPL transcription factor families. SBP, SQUAMOSA promoter-binding protein. Red and yellow dots indicate cysteine and histidine residues, respectively, b, SAP05 interacts with AtGATAs and SPLs via their ZnF domains in yeast. EV, empty vector control. AD, GAL4-activation domain. BD, GAL4-DNA binding domain. Yeast transformed with AD and BD constructs grew on medium lacking leucine and tryptophan (-L-W) and growth on medium lacking leucine, tryptophan, histidine and alanine (-L-W-H-A) indicates positive interactions, c, Western blot analysis of SAP05-mediated degradation of GATA and SPL proteins in A. thaliana protoplasts. GFP, control; HA, hemagglutinin tag; rSPL, miR156-resistant form. Numbers at left indicate markers in kilodaltons, d, Domain localisation of A. thaliana RPN10. vWA, von Willebrand factor type A domain; UIM, ubiquitin-interacting motifs, e, SAP05 interacts with AtRPNIO via its vWA domain in yeast. N-ter and C-ter refer to the N and C termini, respectively, f-k, Western blot analysis of SAP05 degradation assays in either rpn10-2 (f) or wild type (g-k) A. thaliana protoplasts. SAP05-mediated degradation of targets is dependent on AtRPNIO (f) and independent of the presence of lysines in targets (g). K->R, all lysines replaced by arginines (g). In h-k, ‘tail’ represents an unstructured region that serves as an initiation site for proteasomal degradation. (a,d) Numbers below indicate amino acid positions. (c,f-k) Red dots at left of bands indicate expected protein sizes. (I) shows that the 26S proteasome inhibitor MG132 suppresses SAP05-mediated protein destabilisation. Western blot analysis of protein degradation assays with or without 20 pM MG132 in A. thaliana protoplasts. Dots indicate protein bands of correct size.

Fig. 3 shows SAP05 degrades SPL and GATA transcription factors in whole plants, a- d, SAP05 suppresses plant phenotypes caused by the overexpression of various SPL or GATA members; shown are plant phenotypes (a) and quantitative analyses of leaf serrations (b), rosette leaf numbers (c) and shoot lengths (d). OE, overexpression; x, cross of two lines; rSPL, miR156-resistant form. In a, arrowheads indicate leaf serrations, and arrow a flowering stem; scale bars, 1 cm. Each data point (black or red dot) represents one transgenic line, and the columns show means ± s.d. of these data points. *, P < 0.05, two-tailed unpaired Student’s t-tests. e-f, SPLs (SPL11, e, and SPL13, f) are degraded in plants infected with AY-WB phytoplasma. Black arrows indicate blue GUS staining of non-infected plants that is strongly reduced in AY-WB- infected plants.

Figure 4 shows insect-directed engineering of A. thaliana RPN10 confers SAP05 resistance, a, Domain organisation of A. thaliana and M. quadrilineatus RPN10 proteins and alignment of the first 70 residues of plant and animal RPN10 vWA domains. Highly divergent residues are highlighted below. For full-length alignments of RPN10, see Fig. 6. b, SAP05 does not interact with RPN10 of the phytoplasma leafhopper vector (Mq) or with the specific AtRPNIO mutants hRPN10, RPN10 ml and m2 (see a) in yeast, whereas AtRAD23 (control) does, c, Western blot analysis of SAP05-mediated AtGATA18 degradation upon the expression of various RPN10 variants in A. thaliana rpn10-2 protoplasts. GFP, control. The UIM domains were mutated in hRPN10 uim. d,e, SAP05 induces witches’-broom-like phenotypes in rpn10-2 plants complemented with wild-type AtRPNIO, but not with AtRPNIO ml . Data are mean ± s.d. f, Percentage of M. quadrilineatus nymphs produced in choice fecundity assays. Data are mean ± s.d. from 3 independent experiments, g, Representative images of control or eRPN10 plants in AY-WB phytoplasma infection assays. The lateral shoots are circled. Scale bars, 1 cm. h, Statistical analysis of lateral shoot formation during AY-WB phytoplasma infection. Data are mean ± s.d. from 2 independent experiments. *, P < 0.05, two-tailed unpaired Student’s t-tests (e,h) and /2 test (f). Figure 5 shows that RPN10 homologues are conserved among plants and animals, a, Phylogenetic analysis of RPN10 proteins from various organisms. The presence of vWA and UIM domains were predicted by PFAM. AtRPNIO, Arabidopsis thaliana RPN10 (Uniprot ID: P55034); SIRPN10, Solanum lycopersicum RPN10 (A0A3Q7F6N7); OsRPNIO, Oryza sativa RPN10 (082143); ZmRPNIO, Zea mays RPN10 (B6TK61); DmRPNIO, Drosophila melanogaster RPN10 (P55035); HsRPNIO, Homo sapiens RPN10 (Q5VWC4); BtRPNIO, Bemisia tabaci RPN10 (XP_018915695); MqRPNIO, Macrosteles quadrilineatus RPN10; MpRPNIO, Myzus persicae RPN10 (XP_022181722.1). b, Sequence alignment of the A. thaliana RPN10 and the M. quadrilineatus RPN10 proteins. The vWA domains and UIM domains are highlighted in red and blue, respectively.

Figure 6 shows an engineered RPN10 allele rescues the developmental defects of the rpn10-2 mutant. The rpn10-2 mutant was complemented by either a wild-type AtRPNIO allele (cRPNIO) or an engineered RPN10 allele (AtRPNIO ml, eRPNIO) under the control of the native RPN10 promoter. At least two independent lines for each complementation were obtained, with consistent plant phenotype.

Figure 7 shows an alignment of SAP05 homologs from various phytoplasmas.

Figure 8 shows the alignment of the conserved vWA domain from representative plant species. The first 118 residues of the vWA domain is shown. The position corresponding to the engineered sites in AtvWA domain are highlighted.

Figure 9 shows target sequences around substitution sites of AtRPNIO gene that can be used for CRISPR. The substitution sites are highlighted in red box.

Figure 10 shows an alignment of RPN10 sequences.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention will now be further described. In the following passages, different aspects of the invention are defined in more detail. Each aspect so defined may be combined with any other aspect or aspects unless clearly indicated to the contrary. In particular, any feature indicated as being preferred or advantageous may be combined with any other feature or features indicated as being preferred or advantageous.

The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of botany, microbiology, tissue culture, molecular biology, chemistry, biochemistry and recombinant DNA technology, bioinformatics, which are within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature.

As used herein, the words "nucleic acid", "nucleic acid sequence", "nucleotide", "nucleic acid molecule" or "polynucleotide" are intended to include DNA molecules (e.g., cDNA or genomic DNA), RNA molecules (e.g., mRNA), natural occurring, mutated, synthetic DNA or RNA molecules, and analogs of the DNA or RNA generated using nucleotide analogs. It can be single-stranded or double-stranded. Such nucleic acids or polynucleotides include, but are not limited to, coding sequences of structural genes, anti-sense sequences, and non-coding regulatory sequences that do not encode mRNAs or protein products. These terms also encompass a gene. The term "gene" or “gene sequence" is used broadly to refer to a DNA nucleic acid associated with a biological function. Thus, genes may include introns and exons as in the genomic sequence, or may comprise only a coding sequence as in cDNAs, and/or may include cDNAs in combination with regulatory sequences.

The terms "polypeptide" and "protein" are used interchangeably herein and refer to amino acids in a polymeric form of any length, linked together by peptide bonds.

For the purposes of the invention, a “genetically altered plant" or “mutant plant” is a plant that has been genetically altered compared to the naturally occurring wild type (WT) plant. In one embodiment, a mutant plant is a plant that has been altered compared to the naturally occurring wild type (WT) plant using a mutagenesis method, such as any of the mutagenesis methods described herein. In one embodiment, the mutagenesis method is targeted genome modification or genome editing. In one embodiment, the plant genome has been altered compared to wild type sequences using a mutagenesis method. Such plants have an altered phenotype as described herein, such as an increased resistance to a vector-borne pathogen. Therefore, in this example, increased resistance to a vector-borne pathogen is conferred by the presence of an altered plant genome, for example, a mutated endogenous RPN10 gene. In one embodiment, the endogenous gene is specifically targeted using targeted genome modification and the presence of a mutated gene is not conferred by the presence of transgenes expressed in the plant. In other words, the genetically altered plant can be described as transgene- free.

The aspects of the invention involve recombination DNA technology and exclude embodiments that are solely based on generating plants by traditional breeding methods.

It is well documented that pathogens produce effectors that modify specific processes in the host. Here we have identified that the phytoplasma effector protein, SAP05, interacts with plant proteins to cause developmental defects. Interestingly we have further found that the same effector did not interact with the homologous protein in the phytoplasma- colonised insects (i.e. the vector for phytoplasma). Analysis of the amino acid sequence between the insect vector and plant host revealed a number of amino acid differences, and that these differences in amino acid sequence prevented binding of SAP05 to the insect homologue. The ability of phytoplasma to selectively target only its host is key to its successful vector-mediated transmission. As such, our work reveals a new strategy by which vector-borne pathogens selectively target hosts without causing pathology to its vector. This strategy can thus be used to engineer hosts - or the host targets - and confer resistance of the host to the vector-borne pathogen.

Accordingly, in one aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of providing resistance or increasing resistance of a host to a vector-borne pathogen, the method comprising: a. identifying at least one host target that is the target of at least one pathogen effector; b. identifying at least one homologue of the host target in the vector; c. comparing the nucleic acid or protein sequence of the host target and vector homologue and identifying one or more sequence differences in the nucleic acid or protein sequence between the host and vector nucleic acid or protein sequence; and d. introducing said one or more differences in nucleic acid or protein sequence of the vector into the host target; wherein introduction of one or more of the differences provides resistance or increases resistance to the vector-borne pathogen. The pathogen may be any animal pathogen, such as a human, animal or plant pathogen. Preferably, the pathogen is a plant pathogen. In one embodiment, the pathogen may be a virus, parasite or bacteria. Where the plant pathogen is a bacteria, the bacteria may be a xylem-limited vector borne bacteria or a phloem-limited vector borne bacteria. Examples of xylem-limited vector borne bacteria include bacteria from the class Gammaproteobacteria, such as X.fastidiosa. Examples of phloem-limited vector borne bacteria include Spiroplasmas, Phytoplasmas (from the class Mollicutes) and Liberibacters (from the class Alphaproteobacteria).

Most preferably, the pathogen is bacteria, preferably phytoplasma. In one example, the phytoplasma is selected from Aster yellows, including Aster Yellow strain Witches Broom (AY-WB) and other yellows diseases caused by andidatus Phytoplasma asteris; Peanut witches’-broom; X-disease group; Coconut-lethal yellows; Elm yellows; Clover proliferation group; Ash yellows; Loofah witches’-broom; Pigeon pea witches’-broom; Apple proliferation group; Rice yellow dwarf; Stolbur group; Mexican periwinkle virescence; Bermuda grass white leaf; Italian bindweed stolbur group; Buckthorn witches’; Spartium witches’-broom; Italian alfalfa witches’ broom and Cirsium phyllody.

Further examples include, pine witches’-broom, Lethal yellowing (LY); grapevine yellows phytoplasmas; bois noir phytoplasm, flavescence doree phytoplasma, Candidatus phytoplasma solani that infect tomato, potato and other solanaceous crops and Maize redness disease phytoplasma, clover and strawberry phytoplasmas, rice yellow dwarf phytoplasma, rice orange leaf phytoplasma, maize bushy stunt phytoplasma, lettuce phyllody phytoplasma, Peanut witches’ broom phytoplasma, Witches broom disease of lime phytoplasma, Rapeseed phytoplasma, pear decline phytoplasma, European stonefruit phytoplasma, and the Apple proliferation phytoplasma.

By “pathogen effector” is meant the or one of the proteins secreted by the pathogen into the cells of the host. The function of the pathogen effector is to help the pathogen invade host tissue, modulate host processes, supress the host immune system (or host immune response to the pathogen and its arthropod vectors) or otherwise help the pathogen to survive. These effector molecules may be small proteins that typically function through the manipulation of plant immune responses, pathogen self-defence or liberation of nutrients from host tissues. The effectors may also comprise other types of microbially secreted molecules, such as secondary metabolites, small RNAs, messenger RNAs and long non-coding RNAs. Once a pathogen genome has been sequenced, an effector protein can be predicted based on protein sequence similarities. Examples of pathogen effectors include but are not limited to the below examples. In one example, where the pathogen is X.fastidiosa, the effector molecule is selected from RpfC, FimA, FimF, HxfA,

HxfB, PglA, -1 ,4 endoglucanases, Xylanases, Xylosidases, LesA and O-antigen in LPS. In another embodiment, where the pathogen is a Phytoplasma, the effector molecule is a secreted AY-WB protein, such as, but not limited to SAP21 , SAP05, SAP06, SAP19,

SAP27, SAP59, SAP26, SAP25, SAP60, SAP61 , SAP36, SAP55, SAP39, SAP54,

SAP53, SAP62, SAP40, SAP41 , SAP63, SAP42, SAP43, SAP52, SAP64, SAP22,

SAP44, SAP45, SAP51 , SAP65, SAP49, SAP48, SAP47, SAP66, SAP56, SAP67,

SAP68, SAP11 , SAP09, SAP08, SAP30, SAP50, SAP69, SAP70, SAP34, SAP71 ,

SAP35, SAP15, SAP13, SAP20, SAP72, SAP37, SAP01 , SAP02, SAP73, SAP74,

SAP67 and SAP76 or a homologous effector molecule in another phytoplasma.

Alternatively, the effector molecule is Amp, TENGLI, Phyllogen, P38, HfIB and VmpA. In another embodiment, where the pathogen is a Spiroplasma, the effector molecule is P58, SARP1 , Spiralin and P32. In another embodiment, where the pathogen is a Liberibacter, the effector molecule is SC2_gpO95.

By “host target” is meant any molecule that interacts with or binds to the pathogen effector. The target may be any host protein or nucleic acid, such as DNA or RNA. Examples of RNA targets are small RNAs, mRNA transcripts and IncRNAs. Examples of DNA targets include genes and promoters.

Once a pathogen effector has been identified, the host target of the pathogen effector can be easily identified using routine methods in the art, such as protein-protein interaction assays, including yeast two-hybrid screens. Other methods of identifying a host target include analysing effector structure, in vivo expression patterns and/or localisation patterns and/or the target’s biochemical activities.

The host may be an animal or plant. “Providing resistance or increasing resistance” of the host to the vector-borne pathogen can be determined by measuring pathogen growth on the host. For example, a host may be considered resistant or the resistance of a host may be considered increased if the growth of the pathogen on the host is abolished or reduced compared to growth on a control or wild-type host. Alternatively, resistance may be measured by determining a reduction or abolition of a symptom or phenotype associated with the pathogen infection. Again, such a reduction or abolition may be in comparison to the symptom or phenotype of a control or wild-type host.

By “vector” is meant any vector for a pathogen. In one embodiment, the vector may be an arthropod, such as an insect or other invertebrate vector. For example, the vector may be a mosquito, aquatic snail, lice, midge, sandfly, tick, fly, flea, triatomine bug, louse, mite or tsetse fly. In one embodiment, the vector is a hemipteran insect. More preferably, the insect is selected from Psylloidea, Aleyrodoidea, Coccoidea, Aphidoidea, Fulgoroidea, Cicadoidea, Cercopodidea, Membracoidea, Coleorrhyncha and Heteroptera. In another embodiment, the vector is a microbial vector, a fungi or plasmodia.

In one embodiment, the one or more difference is a difference in the nucleic acid sequence and/or the amino acid sequence of the vector and host. For example, the vector may contain one or more additional or different nucleic acids or amino acids compared to the host. Alternatively, the vector may lack one or more nucleic acids or amino acids compared to the host. By introducing the one or more differences preferably means introducing one or more mutations into the host nucleic acid or amino acid sequence such that the host contains the same nucleic acid or amino acid sequence or part of the same sequence as the vector homologue. The mutation may be introduced using any mutagenesis technique. In a preferred embodiment, CRISPR may be used to introduce the one or more mutation.

In one embodiment, the method may comprise identifying one or more domains in the host target protein that binds the pathogen effector and identifying one or more difference in nucleic acid and/or amino acid sequence between the host and vector in this domain. The method may further comprise introducing only the difference between the host and vector in this domain into the host. In other words, the method may comprise selectively mutating only the domain in the host target protein that binds the pathogen effector.

To identify a vector homologue, methods such as PCR, hybridization, and the like can be used based on their sequence homology to the host sequence. There are predictors in the art that can be used to identify such sequences. Topology of the sequences and the characteristic domains structure can also be considered when identifying and isolating homologs. Sequences may be isolated based on their sequence identity to the entire sequence or to fragments thereof. In hybridization techniques, all or part of a known nucleotide sequence is used as a probe that selectively hybridizes to other corresponding nucleotide sequences present in a population of cloned genomic DNA fragments or cDNA fragments (i.e. , genomic or cDNA libraries) from a chosen plant. The hybridization probes may be genomic DNA fragments, cDNA fragments, RNA fragments, or other oligonucleotides, and may be labelled with a detectable group, or any other detectable marker. Methods for preparation of probes for hybridization and for construction of cDNA and genomic libraries are generally known in the art and are disclosed in Sambrook, et al., (1989) Molecular Cloning: A Library Manual (2d ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview, New York).

In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of producing an organism that has resistance or increased resistance to a vector-borne pathogen, the method comprising a. identifying at least one host protein that is the target of at least one pathogen effector; b. identifying at least one homologue of the host target protein in the vector; c. comparing the nucleic acid or protein sequence of the host target and vector homologue and identifying one or more sequence differences in the nucleic acid or protein sequence between the host and vector nucleic acid or protein sequence; and d. introducing said one or more differences in nucleic acid or protein sequence of the vector into at least one cell of the organism; wherein introduction of one or more of the differences provides resistance or increases resistance to the vector-borne pathogen; and e. regenerating at least one organism from the cell or cells.

The organism may be a plant or animal. Where the organism is an animal it may not be a human. There is also provided the organism obtained or obtainable from the abovedescribed method. In a further aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of providing or increasing biotic stress tolerance or resistance (such terms may be used interchangeably) in a plant, the method comprising introducing at least one mutation into at least one RPN10 gene.

As used herein, “biotic stress" refers to harmful effects caused by another (living) organism. In one embodiment, the organism is a plant pathogen, and in a more preferable embodiment, the pathogen is a vector-borne pathogen. Most preferably, the pathogen is bacteria, preferably phytoplasma, as defined above. In one example, the phytoplasma is Aster Yellow strain Witches Broom (AY-WB) .In a further embodiment, where the pathogen is a vector-borne pathogen, the method also provides or increases resistance to the vector. In other words, the method provides or increases biotic stress resistance, where the biotic stress is caused by both a vector and the vector-borne pathogen. Preferably, the vector is an insect. Alternatively, the vector can be another invertebrate or microbe. More preferably the vector is a leafhopper, planthopper or psyllid. In one example the insect is preferably M. quadrilineatus or another Macrosteles species. In a further example, the insect may be selected from Dalbulus species, Scaphoideus titanus, Hishimonas phycitis, Circulifer tenellus, Circulifer haematoceps, Cacopsylla crataegi, Cacopsylla mali, Ctenarytaina spatulata, Ctenarytaina eucalypti, Cacopsylla pyri, Cacopsylla pruni, Hyalesthes obsoletus, Reptalus noahi, Reptalus panzeri and Myndus crudus.

“By at least one mutation” is meant that where the RPN10 gene is present as more than one copy or homoeologue (with the same or slightly different sequence) there is at least one mutation in at least one gene. Preferably all genes are mutated.

In one embodiment, an “increase" in resistance or tolerance to the vector-borne pathogen, such as phytoplasma, may be characterised by a reversal or reduction in the developmental effects of infection, such as the phyllody and/or the excessive proliferation of axillary shoots. Any of the above can be determined using standard techniques in the art. As such, an increase in resistance may be determined by a qualitative improvement in phenotype. Alternatively, an effect on plant development may be quantified by measuring one or more of leaf number, bolting, number of lateral shoots, plant height, level of chlorosis or other discolorations of the plant/leaves, timing of onset of developmental stages, seed and fruit production and/or level of viable progeny. In this embodiment, an increase in resistance may be quantified as an increase in one or more of these characteristics, for example, an increase of at least 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10% 11%, 12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 100% in comparison to a control plant.

RPN10 is a subunit of the 26S proteasome that recognises polyubiquitinated proteins. RPN10 may also be known as 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog, 26S proteasome regulatory subunit RPN10, 26S proteasome regulatory subunit S5A homolog and Multiubiquitin chain-binding protein 1. RPN10 is characterised by an N-terminal von Willebrand factor type A domain (vWA) and a C-terminal domain containing Ubiquitin-interacting motifs (UM). We have found that the Phytoplasma protein SAP05 protein interacts specifically with the vWA domain of RPN10. SAP05 and homologs of SAP05 are widespread in different phytoplasmas. Examples include AY- WB, Peanut witches’ broom phytoplasma, Witches broom disease of lime phytoplasma, Rapeseed phytoplasma and the Apple proliferation phytoplasma, as discussed above. As shown in Figure 7, SAP05 is highly conserved among different phytoplasma. We have further found that mutation of the vWA domain prevents the interaction with SAP05 and consequent degradation of the SAP05 targets, GATAs and SPLs.

In one embodiment, the method comprises introducing at least one mutation into at least one endogenous RPN10 gene. Preferably, the mutation abolishes or reduces the binding of SAP05 to RPN10. In a further embodiment, the method may involve introducing more two or three mutations into the RPN10 gene.

In the above embodiments an ’endogenous’ nucleic acid or gene may refer to the native or natural sequence in the plant genome. In one embodiment, the endogenous nucleic acid sequence encodes a RPN10 amino acid sequence as defined in SEQ ID NO: 18 or a functional variant or homologue thereof. In a further preferred embodiment, the nucleic acid sequence comprises or consists of a nucleic acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NO: 1 or a functional variant or homologue thereof.

The term “variant” or “functional variant” as used herein with reference to any of the sequences defined herein refers to a variant gene sequence or part of the gene sequence which retains the biological function of the full non-variant sequence. A functional variant also comprises a variant of the gene of interest, which has sequence alterations that do not affect function, for example in non-conserved residues. Also encompassed is a variant that is substantially identical, i.e. has only some sequence variations, for example in non-conserved residues, compared to the wild type sequences as shown herein and is biologically active. Alterations in a nucleic acid sequence that results in the production of a different amino acid at a given site that does not affect the functional properties of the encoded polypeptide are well known in the art. For example, a codon for the amino acid alanine, a hydrophobic amino acid, may be substituted by a codon encoding another less hydrophobic residue, such as glycine, or a more hydrophobic residue, such as valine, leucine, or isoleucine. Similarly, changes which result in substitution of one negatively charged residue for another, such as aspartic acid for glutamic acid, or one positively charged residue for another, such as lysine for arginine, can also be expected to produce a functionally equivalent product. Nucleotide changes which result in alteration of the N-terminal and C-terminal portions of the polypeptide molecule would also not be expected to alter the activity of the polypeptide. Each of the proposed modifications is well within the routine skill in the art, as is determination of retention of biological activity of the encoded products.

As used in any aspect of the invention described herein a “variant” or a “functional variant” has at least 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, 30%, 31 %, 32%, 33%, 34%, 35%, 36%, 37%, 38%, 39%, 40%, 41 %, 42%, 43%, 44%, 45%, 46%, 47%, 48%, 49%, 50%, 51 %,

52%, 53%, 54%, 55%, 56%, 57%, 58%, 59%, 60%, 61%, 62%, 63%, 64%, 65%, 66%,

67%, 68%, 69%, 70%, 71 %, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81 %,

82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%,

97%, 98%, or at least 99% overall sequence identity to the non-variant nucleic acid or amino acid sequence.

The term homolog, as used herein, also designates a RPN10 gene orthologue from other plant species. A homolog may have, in increasing order of preference, at least 50%,

51 %, 52%, 53%, 54%, 55%, 56%, 57%, 58%, 59%, 60%, 61%, 62%, 63%, 64%, 65%,

66%, 67%, 68%, 69%, 70%, 71 %, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%,

81 %, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%,

96%, 97%, 98%, or at least 99% overall sequence identity to the amino acid represented by SEQ ID NO:18 or to the nucleic acid sequences shown in SEQ ID NOs:1. Functional variants of RPN10 gene homologs as defined above are also within the scope of the invention. In one embodiment, the homolog has an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID Nos 19 to 34 or a variant thereof. In a further embodiment, the homolog has a nucleic acid sequence selected from SEQ ID Nos 2 to 17 or a variant thereof.

As described above, the RPN10 protein is characterised by an N-terminal von Willebrand factor type A domain (vWA). In one embodiment, the amino acid vWA domain comprises or consists of the following amino acid sequence:

SEQ ID NO: 47

MVLEATMICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRLQAQTEAVNLLCGAKTQSNPENTVGILTMAGK GVRVLTTPTSDLGKILACMHGLDVGGEINLTAAIQIAQLALKHRQNKNQRQRIIVFAGS PIKYEKKALEIVGKRLKKNSVSLDIVNFGEDDDEEKPQKLEALLTAVNNNDGSHIVHVP SGANALSDVLLSTPVFTGDEGASGY

In one embodiment, the RPN10 homologue comprises a vWA domain as defined in SEQ ID NO:47 or a variant thereof as defined above. As shown in Figure 8, the vWA domain is highly conserved in different plants.

Suitable homologues can be identified by sequence comparisons and identifications of conserved domains as described above. There are predictors in the art that can be used to identify such sequences. The function of the homologue can be identified as described herein and a skilled person would thus be able to confirm the function, for example when overexpressed in a plant.

Hybridization of such sequences may be carried out under stringent conditions. By "stringent conditions" or "stringent hybridization conditions" is intended conditions. Typically, stringent conditions will be those in which the salt concentration is less than about 1.5 M Na ion, typically about 0.01 to 1.0 M Na ion concentration (or other salts) at pH 7.0 to 8.3 and the temperature is at least about 30°C for short probes (e.g., 10 to 50 nucleotides) and at least about 60°C for long probes (e.g., greater than 50 nucleotides). Duration of hybridization is generally less than about 24 hours, usually about 4 to 12 hours. Stringent conditions may also be achieved with the addition of destabilizing agents such as formamide. In one embodiment, there is provided a method of increasing resistance of a host to a vector-borne pathogen, as described herein, the method comprising introducing at least one mutation into a RPN10 gene, wherein the RPN10 gene comprises or consists of a. a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide comprising at least one vWA domain as defined in SEQ ID NO: 47 or a variant thereof; b. a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide as defined in one of SEQ ID Nos 18 to 34; or c. a nucleic acid sequence as defined in one of SEQ ID Nos 1 to 17; or d. a nucleic acid sequence with at least 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91 %, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or at least 99% overall sequence identity to either (a) or (c); or e. a nucleic acid sequence encoding a RPN10 polypeptide as defined herein that is capable of hybridising under stringent conditions as defined herein to the nucleic acid sequence of any of (a) to (d).

In one embodiment, the mutation that is introduced into the endogenous RPN10 gene thereof may be selected from the following mutation types

1. a "missense mutation", which is a change in the nucleic acid sequence that results in the substitution of an amino acid for another amino acid;

2. a "nonsense mutation" or "STOP codon mutation", which is a change in the nucleic acid sequence that results in the introduction of a premature STOP codon and, thus, the termination of translation (resulting in a truncated protein); plant genes contain the translation stop codons "TGA" (UGA in RNA), "TAA" (UAA in RNA) and "TAG" (UAG in RNA); thus any nucleotide substitution, insertion, deletion which results in one of these codons to be in the mature mRNA being translated (in the reading frame) will terminate translation.

3. an "insertion mutation" of one or more amino acids, due to one or more codons having been added in the coding sequence of the nucleic acid;

4. a "deletion mutation" of one or more amino acids, due to one or more codons having been deleted in the coding sequence of the nucleic acid;

5. a "frameshift mutation", resulting in the nucleic acid sequence being translated in a different frame downstream of the mutation. A frameshift mutation can have various causes, such as the insertion, deletion or duplication of one or more nucleotides. 6. a “splice site” mutation, which is a mutation that results in the insertion, deletion or substitution of a nucleotide at the site of splicing.

7. an “inversion” mutation, which is a one hundred and eighty rotation of a sequence of nucleic acid.

In one embodiment, the mutation is a loss of function mutation. In a further preferred embodiment, the mutation is a substitution and/or deletion.

In a preferred embodiment, the mutation may be introduced into the N-terminal vWA (von Willebrand factor type A) domain of RPN10. For example, at least one mutation may be introduced into the N-terminal vWA domain as defined in SEQ ID NO:47.

In one embodiment, the mutation is selected from one or both of the following mutations: a substitution at positions 38 and 39 of SEQ ID NO: 18 or a homologous position thereof; and/or a substitution at positions 56 to 58 of SEQ ID NO: 18 or a homologous position thereof.

In a preferred embodiment, the mutation is selected from a GA to HS substitution at positions 38 and 39 of SEQ ID NO: 18 or a homologous position thereof; and/or a GKG to K substitution at positions 56 to 58 of SEQ ID NO: 18 or a homologous position thereof.

In a most preferred embodiment, the mutation is a GA to HS substitution at positions 38 and 39 of SEQ ID NO: 18 or a homologous position thereof.

Homologous positions can be easily determined using techniques in the art. In one example, to identify the homologous positions shown in SEQ ID NO: 19 to 34 and 2 to 17 we first downloaded the homologous nucleotide and aa sequences from NCBI by BLAST using the sequence of AtRPNIO CDNA or aa as the query. Then we used the online too Clustal Omega (https://www.ebi.ac.uk/Tools/msa/clustalo/) to align either the nucleotide or aa sequences and to identify the homologous positions.

In a further preferred embodiment, the mutation is at the following homologous position is selected from

In one embodiment, the mutation is introduced using targeted genome editing. That is, in one embodiment, the invention relates to a method and plant that has been generated by genetic engineering methods as described above, and does not encompass naturally occurring varieties or generating plants by traditional breeding methods.

Targeted genome modification or targeted genome editing is a genome engineering technique that uses targeted DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) to stimulate genome editing through homologous recombination (HR)-mediated recombination events.

In a preferred embodiment, the genome editing method that is used according to the various aspects of the invention is CRISPR. Type II CRISPR is one of the most well characterized systems and carries out targeted DNA double-strand breaks in four sequential steps. First, two non-coding RNA, the pre-crRNA array and tracrRNA, are transcribed from the CRISPR locus. Second, tracrRNA hybridizes to the repeat regions of the pre-crRNA and mediates the processing of pre-crRNA into mature crRNAs containing individual spacer sequences. Third, the mature crRNA:tracrRNA complex directs Cas9 to the target DNA via Watson-Crick base-pairing between the spacer on the crRNA and the protospacer on the target DNA next to the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM), an additional requirement for target recognition. Finally, Cas9 mediates cleavage of target DNA to create a double-stranded break within the protospacer.

One major advantage of the CRISPR-Cas9 system, as compared to conventional gene targeting and other programmable endonucleases is the ease of multiplexing, where multiple genes can be mutated simultaneously simply by using multiple sgRNAs each targeting a different gene. In addition, where two sgRNAs are used flanking a genomic region, the intervening section can be deleted or inverted (Wiles et al., 2015).

Cas9 is thus the hallmark protein of the type II CRISPR-Cas system, and is a large monomeric DNA nuclease guided to a DNA target sequence adjacent to the PAM (protospacer adjacent motif) sequence motif by a complex of two noncoding RNAs: CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and trans-activating crRNA (tracrRNA). The Cas9 protein contains two nuclease domains homologous to RuvC and HNH nucleases. The HNH nuclease domain cleaves the complementary DNA strand whereas the RuvC-like domain cleaves the non-complementary strand and, as a result, a blunt cut is introduced in the target DNA. Heterologous expression of Cas9 together with an sgRNA can introduce site-specific double strand breaks (DSBs) into genomic DNA of live cells from various organisms. For applications in eukaryotic organisms, codon optimized versions of Cas9, which is originally from the bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes, have been used.

The single guide RNA (sgRNA) is the second component of the CRISPR/Cas system that forms a complex with the Cas9 nuclease. sgRNA is a synthetic RNA chimera created by fusing crRNA with tracrRNA. The sgRNA guide sequence located at its 5’ end confers DNA target specificity. Therefore, by modifying the guide sequence, it is possible to create sgRNAs with different target specificities. The canonical length of the guide sequence is 20 bp. In plants, sgRNAs have been expressed using plant RNA polymerase III promoters, such as U6 and U3. Accordingly, using techniques known in the art, such as http://chopchop.cbu.uib.no/ it is possible to design sgRNA molecules that targets a RPN10 gene sequence as described herein.

For example, Figure 9 shows 6 possible CRISPR target sites that can be used for CRISPR followed by homology directed repair to introduce one or more mutations into AtRPNIO.

In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a nucleic acid construct comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding a sgRNA molecule, wherein the sgRNA molecule targets a nucleic acid sequence in RPN10 selected from SEQ ID NO: 35, 37, 39, 41 , 43 or 45 or a variant thereof. In a further embodiment, the nucleic acid sequence comprises or consists of SEQ ID NO: 36, 38, 40, 42, 44 or 46 or a variant thereof.

By “sgRNA” (single-guide RNA) is meant the combination of tracrRNA and crRNA in a single RNA molecule, preferably also including a linker loop (that links the tracrRNA and crRNA into a single molecule). “sgRNA” may also be referred to as “gRNA" and in the present context, the terms are interchangeable. The sgRNA or gRNA provide both targeting specificity and scaffolding/binding ability for a Cas nuclease. A gRNA may refer to a dual RNA molecule comprising a crRNA molecule and a tracrRNA molecule.

In a further embodiment, the nucleic acid sequence encoding a sgRNA molecule is operable linked to a regulatory sequence, such as a plant promoter. A suitable plant promoter may be a constitutive or strong promoter or may be a tissue-specific promoter. In one embodiment, suitable plant promoters are selected from, but not limited to, oestrum yellow leaf curling virus (CmYLCV) promoter or switchgrass ubiquitin 1 promoter (Pvllbil), wheat U6 RNA polymerase III (Tall6), CaMV35S, wheat U6 or maize ubiquitin (e.g. Ubi1) promoters.

The nucleic acid construct of the present invention may also further comprise a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a CRISPR enzyme. By “CRISPR enzyme” is meant an RNA- guided DNA endonuclease that can associate with the CRISPR system. Specifically, such an enzyme binds to the tracrRNA sequence. In one embodiment, the CRIPSR enzyme is a Cas protein (“CRISPR associated protein), preferably Cas 9 or Cpf1 , more preferably Cas9. The Cas9 enzyme may be modified as described below. In a specific embodiment Cas9 is codon-optimised Cas9. In another embodiment, the CRISPR enzyme is a protein from the family of Class 2 candidate x proteins, such as C2c1 , C2C2 and/or C2c3. In one embodiment, the Cas protein is from Streptococcus pyogenes. In an alternative embodiment, the Cas protein may be from any one of Staphylococcus aureus, Neisseria meningitides, Streptococcus thermophiles or Treponema denticola. In a preferred embodiment, the CRISPR enzyme is operably linked to a regulatory sequence - either the same or a different regulatory sequence as for the sgRNA sequence. Again, suitable regulatory sequences are described above.

In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a plant or part thereof or at least one isolated plant cell transfected with at least one nucleic acid construct as described herein. Cas9 and sgRNA may be combined or in separate expression vectors (or nucleic acid constructs, such terms are used interchangeably). In other words, in one embodiment, an isolated plant cell is transfected with a single nucleic acid construct comprising both sgRNA and a CRISPR enzyme as described in detail above. In an alternative embodiment, an isolated plant cell is transfected with two nucleic acid constructs, a first nucleic acid construct comprising at least one sgRNA as defined above and a second nucleic acid construct comprising a CRISPR enzyme or a functional variant or homolog thereof. The second nucleic acid construct may be transfected below, after or concurrently with the first nucleic acid construct. The advantage of a separate, second construct comprising a CRISPR enzyme is that the nucleic acid construct encoding at least one sgRNA can be paired with any type of CRISPR enzyme, as described herein, and therefore is not limited to a single CRISPR enzyme function (as would be the case when both the CRISPR enzyme and sgRNA are encoded on the same nucleic acid construct). In one embodiment, the nucleic acid construct comprising a CRISPR enzyme is transfected first and is stably incorporated into the genome, before the second transfection with a nucleic acid construct comprising at least one sgRNA nucleic acid. In an alternative embodiment, a plant or part thereof or at least one isolated plant cell is transfected with mRNA encoding a CRISPR enzyme and co-transfected with at least one nucleic acid construct as defined herein.

In a further aspect of the invention, there is provided a sgRNA molecule expressed from the nucleic acid construct described above.

In a preferred embodiment of any aspect of the invention described herein, sgRNA can be used with a modified Cas9 protein, such as nickase Cas9 or nCas9 or a “dead” Cas9 (dCas9) fused to a “Base Editor” - such as an enzyme, for example a deaminase such as cytidine deaminase, or TadA (tRNA adenosine deaminase) or ADAR or APOBEC. These enzymes are able to substitute one base for another. As a result no DNA is deleted, but a single substitution is made (Kim et al., 2017; Gaudelli et al. 2017). Alternatively, the method may use sgRNA together with a template or donor DNA constructs, to introduce a targeted SNP or mutation, in particular one of the substitutions described herein, into a RPN10 gene. In this embodiment, the introduction of a template DNA strand, following a sgRNA-mediated snip in the double-stranded DNA, can be used to produce a specific targeted mutation (i.e. a SNP) in the gene using homology directed repair. Using the above methods we can mutate nucleotides GGAGCC (coding amino acids G and A at positions 112 to 117 of SEQ ID NO:1) to either CATTCC or CACTCC

(coding amino acids H and S at positions 38 and 39 of SEQ ID NO: 18) in AtRPNIO.

Once targeted genome editing has been performed, rapid high-throughput screening procedures can be used to analyse amplification products for the presence of a mutation in the RPN10 gene. Once a mutation is identified, the seeds of the M2 plant carrying that mutation are grown into adult M3 plants and screened for the phenotypic characteristics associated with the target gene RPN10. Mutants with mutation in RPN10, and in particular in the N-terminal vWA domain, and as a result, increased resistance to pathogens compared to a control can thus be identified.

Plants obtained or obtainable and seeds obtained or obtainable from such plants by such method which carry a functional mutation in the endogenous RPN10 gene are also within the scope of the invention.

In one embodiment, the progeny plant is stably transformed with the CRISPR constructs, and comprises the exogenous polynucleotide which is heritably maintained in the plant cell. The method may include steps to verify that the construct is stably integrated. The method may also comprise the additional step of collecting seeds from the selected progeny plant.

In a further embodiment, the method may further comprise at least one or more of the steps of assessing the phenotype of the genetically altered plant, specifically, measuring or assessing an increase in resistance to a vector-borne pathogen (such as a bacteria), wherein preferably said increase is relative to a control or wild-type plant. Also included in the scope of the invention, is the use of the nucleic acid constructs (CRISPR constructs) described above in any of the above-described methods. For example, there is provided the use of the above CRISPR constructs to introduce at least one mutation into RPN10 as described herein. In particular, as described herein, the CRISPR constructs may be used to introduce at least one mutation into the vWA domain, wherein the mutation prevents or reduces binding of SAP05 to RPN10.

Therefore, in a further aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of preventing binding of a pathogen effector molecule to its host target, the method comprising introducing and expressing a CRISPR construct as described above or introducing a sgRNA molecule expressed by the construct into a plant.

In another aspect of the invention there is provided a genetically altered plant, part thereof or plant cell characterised in that the plant has increased resistance to at least one vector-borne pathogen.

In one embodiment, the plant comprises at least one mutation in the RPN10 gene. Preferably, the mutation is a substitution and/or deletion, and even more preferably, the mutation is the N-terminal vWA domain as described above. In a further embodiment, the mutation has been introduced using targeted genome editing, again as described above.

In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of making a genetically altered plant, wherein the plant is characterised by increased resistance to a vector borne pathogen, the method comprising introducing at least one mutation into at least one RPN10 gene.

In one embodiment, the method comprises a. selecting a part of the plant; b. transfecting at least one cell of the part of the plant of paragraph (a) with at least one CRISPR construct or sgRNA molecule, wherein the CRISPR construct or sgRNA molecule targets the RPN 10 gene and introduces at least one mutation into the RPN 10 gene as described above; c. regenerating at least one plant derived from the transfected cell or cells; d. selecting one or more plants obtained according to paragraph (c) that show at least one mutation in the RPN10 gene, preferably in the N-terminal vWA domain of the RPN10 gene .

In one embodiment, the method may comprises obtaining a DNA sample from a transformed plant and carrying out DNA amplification to detect the at least one mutation in the RPN10 gene. In a further embodiment of any of the methods described herein, the method may further comprise at least one or more of the steps of assessing the phenotype of the genetically altered plant, measuring at least one of resistance or increased resistance to a vector-borne pathogen, such as phytoplasma. In other words, the method may involve the step of screening the plants for the desired phenotype.

Transformation methods for generating a genetically altered plant of the invention are known in the art. Thus, according to the various aspects of the invention, a CRISPR construct as defined herein is introduced into a plant and expressed as a transgene. The construct is introduced into said plant through a process called transformation. The terms "introduction" or "transformation" as referred to herein encompass the transfer of an exogenous polynucleotide into a host cell, irrespective of the method used for transfer. Plant tissue capable of subsequent clonal propagation, whether by organogenesis or embryogenesis, may be transformed with a genetic construct of the present invention and a whole plant regenerated therefrom. The particular tissue chosen will vary depending on the clonal propagation systems available for, and best suited to, the particular species being transformed. Exemplary tissue targets include leaf disks, pollen, embryos, cotyledons, hypocotyls, megagametophytes, callus tissue, existing meristematic tissue (e.g., apical meristem, axillary buds, and root meristems), and induced meristem tissue (e.g., cotyledon meristem and hypocotyl meristem).

The CRISPR construct may be transiently or stably introduced into a host cell and may be maintained non-integrated, for example, as a plasmid. Alternatively, it may be integrated into the host genome. The resulting transformed plant cell may then be used to regenerate a transformed plant in a manner known to persons skilled in the art.

Transformation of plants is now a routine technique in many species. Advantageously, any of several transformation methods may be used to introduce a CRISPR construct into a suitable ancestor cell. The methods described for the transformation and regeneration of plants from plant tissues or plant cells may be utilized for transient or for stable transformation. Transformation methods include the use of liposomes, electroporation, chemicals that increase free DNA uptake, injection of the DNA directly into the plant, particle gun bombardment, transformation using viruses or pollen and microinjection. Methods may be selected from the calcium/polyethylene glycol method for protoplasts, electroporation of protoplasts, microinjection into plant material, DNA or RNA-coated particle bombardment, infection with (non-integrative) viruses and the like. Transgenic plants, including transgenic crop plants, are preferably produced via Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation.

To select transformed plants, the plant material obtained in the transformation is subjected to selective conditions so that transformed plants can be distinguished from untransformed plants. For example, the seeds obtained in the above-described manner can be planted and, after an initial growing period, subjected to a suitable selection by spraying. A further possibility is growing the seeds, if appropriate after sterilization, on agar plates using a suitable selection agent so that only the transformed seeds can grow into plants. Alternatively, the transformed plants are screened for the presence of a selectable marker.

The generated transformed plants may be propagated by a variety of means, such as by clonal propagation or classical breeding techniques. For example, a first generation (or T1) transformed plant may be selfed and homozygous second-generation (or T2) transformants selected, and the T2 plants may then further be propagated through classical breeding techniques. The generated transformed organisms may take a variety of forms. For example, they may be chimeras of transformed cells and non-transformed cells; clonal transformants (e.g., all cells transformed to contain the expression cassette); grafts of transformed and untransformed tissues (e.g., in plants, a transformed rootstock grafted to an untransformed scion).

The method may further comprise regenerating a genetically altered plant from the plant or plant cell wherein the genetically altered plant comprises in its genome at least one mutation in a RPN10 gene as described above, and obtaining a progeny plant derived from the transgenic plant, wherein said progeny exhibits at least one mutation in a RPN10 gene as described and shows an increase in resistance to vector-borne pathogens, such as phytoplasma. In a further embodiment, the methods comprise generating stable T2 plants preferably homozygous for the mutation (that is a mutation in at least one RPN10 gene sequence).

A genetically altered plant of the present invention may also be obtained by transference of any of the sequences of the invention by crossing, e.g., using pollen of the genetically altered plant described herein to pollinate a wild-type or control plant, or pollinating the gynoecia of plants described herein with other pollen that is not genetically altered as described herein. The methods for obtaining the plant of the invention are not exclusively limited to those described in this paragraph; for example, genetic transformation of germ cells from the ear of wheat could also be carried out as mentioned, but without having to regenerate a plant afterwards.

In a further aspect of the invention there is provided a plant obtained or obtainable by the above-described methods.

A plant according to all aspects of the invention described herein may be a monocot or a dicot plant.

In one embodiment, the plant is a crop plant. By crop plant is meant any plant which is grown on a commercial scale for human or animal consumption or use. In another embodiment the plant is Arabidopsis.

In a most preferred embodiment, the plant is a vascular plant. In another embodiment, the plant is a crop plant. In another embodiment, the plant is any plant infected or capable of being infected by phytoplasma.

In one embodiment, the plant may be selected from a brassicas, legumes, cereals, citrus, root vegetables, tuber and rhizome crops, fruits including berries and soft fruits and fruit, nut and seed bearing trees.

In one embodiment, the plant may be selected from Acer negundo (box elder), Achyranthes aspera (devil's horsewhip), Aconitum napellus (aconite monkshood), Adenium obesum, Allium ampeloprasum (wild leek), Allium cepa (onion), Allium sativum (garlic), Alstroemeria (Inca lily), Amaranthus (amaranth), Amaranthus hypochondriacus, Ambrosia artemisiifolia (common ragweed), Ammi majus (Bishop's-weed), Ampelopsis brevipedunculata (Amur amelopsis), Anemone coronaria (Poppy anemone), Anethum graveolens (dill), Apium graveolens (celery), Asparagus officinalis (asparagus), Avena sativa (oats), Bellis perennis (common daisy), Beta vulgaris (beetroot), Bougainvillea spectabilis (great bougainvillea), Brachyscome multifidi, Brassica napus, Brassica napus var. napus (rape), Brassica oleracea (cabbages, cauliflowers), Brassica oleracea var. capitata (cabbage), Brassica oleracea var. italica (broccoli), Brassica rapa subsp. rapa (turnip), Bromus inermis (Awnless brome), Bunias orientalis (Turkish warty-cabbage), Bupleurum falcatum, Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea), Calendula officinalis (Pot marigold), Callistephus chinensis (China aster), Camelina sativa, Cannabis sativa (hemp), Capsicum annuum (bell pepper), Carica papaya (pawpaw), Carthamus tinctorius (safflower), Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar periwinkle), Celosia argentea (celosia), Celtis australis (European nettle wood), Chrysanthemum coronarium (garland chrysanthemum), Chrysanthemum frutescens (marguerite), Chrysanthemum morifolium (chrysanthemum (florists')), Cirsium arvense (creeping thistle), Citrus maxima (pummelo), Citrus reticulata (mandarin), Citrus sinensis (navel orange), Clarkia unguiculata, Cocos nucifera (coconut), Consolida ambigua (rocket larkspur), Conyza bonariensis (hairy fleabane), Conyza canadensis (Canadian fleabane), Coreopsis lanceolate, Coreopsis tinctoria, Coriandrum sativum (coriander), Cornus racemosa (gray dogwood), Corylus avellana (hazel), Cosmos bipinnatus (garden cosmos), Crotalaria spectabilis (showy rattlepod), Crotalaria tetragona, Croton, Cryptotaenia canadensis (honewort), Cryptotaenia japonica, Cucurbita moschata (pumpkin), Cucurbita pepo (marrow), Cuscuta (dodder), Cyclamen persicum (cyclamens), Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass), Cyrtostachys renda, Dahlia, Daucus carota (carrot), Delphinium hybrids (florist's larkspur), Dicentra Formosa, Dicentra spectabilis (bleeding heart), Digitalis lanata (Grecian foxglove), Diplotaxis erucoides, Dysphania ambrosioides (Mexican tea), Echinacea purpurea (purple coneflower), Eclipta prostrata (eclipta), Elaeagnus angustifolia (Russian olive), Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm), Emilia sonchifolia (red tasselflower), Epilobium (willowherbs), Eriobotrya japonica (loquat), Eryngium alpinum, Erysimum linifolium, Eschscholzia californica (California poppy), Etlingera elatior (torch ginger), Eucalyptus, Eucalyptus camaldulensis (red gum), Eupatorium capillifolium (Dog fennel), Euphorbia pulcherrima (poinsettia), Festuca arundinacea (tall fescue), Fortunella japonica (round kumquat), Fragaria ananassa (strawberry), Fraxinus uhdei (tropical ash), Freesia, Gaillardia pulchella (Indian blanket), Gerbera jamesonii (African daisy), Geum coccineum, Gladiolus hybrids (sword lily), Glycine max (soyabean), Gomphocarpus physocarpus (balloon cotton bush), Gossypium (cotton), Gossypium hirsutum (Bourbon cotton), Guizotia abyssinica (niger), Helianthus debilis, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (China-rose), Hordeum vulgare (barley), Humulus lupulus (hop), Hyacinthus orientalis (hyacinth), Hydrangea macrophylla (French hydrangea), Impatiens balsamina (garden balsam), Ipomoea obscura, Isopyrum thalictroides, Jatropha curcas (jatropha), Juniperus (junipers), Koelreuteria paniculata (golden rain tree), Lactuca sativa (lettuce), Lactuca serriola (prickly lettuce), Larix (larches), Lepidium draba (hoary cress), Lilium (lily), Limonium sinuatum (sea pink), Lolium multiflorum (Italian ryegrass), Lotus corniculatus (bird's-foot trefoil), Luffa, Luffa aegyptiaca (loofah), Lupinus (lupins), Macadamia integrifolia (macadamia nut), Magnolia, Malus domestica (apple)Malva (mallow), Mangifera indica (mango), Manihot esculenta (cassava), Matricaria perforata (false chamomile), Medicago sativa (lucerne), Melia azedarach (Chinaberry), Melochia corchorifolia (redweed), Mimosa pudica (sensitive plant), Momordica charantia (bitter gourd), Morus bombycis (Japanese mulberry), Musa acuminata (wild banana), Musa balbisiana, Muscari armeniacum, Myriophyllum aquaticum (parrot's feather), Myrtus communis (myrtle), Nasturtium officinale (watercress), Nigella damascena (Love-in-a-mist), Ocimum basilicum (basil), Olea europaea subsp.europaea (European olive), Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly pear), Opuntia sp. (pricklypear), Pachysandra terminalis (Japanese spurge), Papaver rhoeas (common poppy), Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium weed), Passiflora edulis (passionfruit), Paulownia tomentosa (paulownia), Pelargonium (pelargoniums), Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet), Petroselinum crispum (parsley), Petunia, Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean), Phlox drummondii (Annual phlox), Phoenix dactylifera (date- palm), Physalis ixocarpa, Piper nigrum (black pepper), Pittosporum undulatum (Australian cheesewood), Plantago (Plantain), Poa pratensis (smooth meadow-grass), Populus (poplars), Populus nigra (black poplar), Portulaca oleracea (purslane), Primula sp. (primrose), Prunus armeniaca (apricot), Prunus avium (sweet cherry), Prunus cerasus (sour cherry), Prunus persica (peach), Prunus persica var. nucipersica (nectarine), Prunus salicina (Japanese plum), Psylliostachys suworowii, Pterocarya stenoptera (Chinese wing nut), Pyrus communis (European pear), Quercus robur (common oak), Ranunculus asiaticus (garden crowfoot), Raphanus raphanistrum (wild radish), Raphanus sativus (radish), Rhododendron (Azalea), Ribes nigrum (blackcurrant), Ribes rubrum (red currant), Rosa multiflora (multiflora rose), Rosa rugosa (rugosa rose), Roystonea regia (cuban royal palm), Rubus (blackberry, raspberry), Rubus fruticosus (blackberry), Rudbeckia hirta, Saccharum, Salix (willows), Salix babylonica (weeping willow), Salix guebriantiana, Santalum album (Indian sandalwood), Saponaria officinalis (soapwort), Scabiosa atropurpurea (Pincushion), Schizanthus pinnatus, Sechium edule (chayote), Sedum spectabile (showy stonecrop), Senecio jacobaea (common ragwort), Sesamum indicum (sesame), Solanum lycopersicum (tomato), Solanum melongena (aubergine), Solanum tuberosum (potato), Solidago (Goldenrod), Sonchus arvensis (perennial sowthistle), Sonchus asper (spiny sowthistle), Sonchus oleraceus (common sowthistle), Spinacia oleracea (spinach), Spiraea bumalda, Spiraea tomentosa (Hardback), Stellaria media (common chickweed), Streblus asper, Syringa oblate, Syringa reticulate, Syringa vulgaris (lilac), Tagetes erecta (Mexican marigold), Tagetes patula (French marigold), Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Pyrethrum), Tanacetum parthenium (Feverfew), Taraxacum officinale complex (dandelion), Toona ciliata (toon), Trifolium hybridum (alsike clover), Trifolium pratense (red clover), Trifolium repens (white clover), Triticum aestivum (wheat), Ulrnus (elms), Vaccinium (blueberries), Valeriana officinalis (common valerian), Verbascum densiflorum, Vitis vinifera (grapevine), Withania somnifera (poisonous gooseberry), Wodyetia bifurcata (foxtail palm), Xanthoceras sorbifolium, Yucca constricta, Zanthoxylum schinifolium, Zea mays (maize) and Zinnia elegans (zinnia).

In a further embodiment, the plant is selected from rice, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, potato, tomato, cotton, soybean, Brassicas, such as B.napus, cabbage, lettuce, carrot, coconut, papaya, oil palms, grape, apple, oranges, sugarcane, citrus (such as lime, citrus, orange, grapefruit), egg plant, elm, ash, willow, elm, Dogwood, hydrangea, cyclamen, mulberry, poplar, cactus, anemone, olive, Paulownia species, pecan, walnut, alder, jujube, pigeon pea, hazel, sugar cane, bermuda grass, oat, buckthorn, cirsium, sesame, alfalfa, pea, plantain, birch, cassava, peanut, loofah, cocoa, date or date palm, sweet potato, lettuce, chrysanthemum, pointsettia, sunflower, flox, hortensia, tulips, gladiolus and other bulbs, onion, garlic, cabbage tree, pine, trees, stone fruit trees, palm, carrot, strawberry, blueberry, cranberry, blackberry and other berry plants.

The term "plant" as used herein encompasses whole plants, ancestors and progeny of the plants and plant parts, including seeds, fruit, shoots, stems, leaves, roots (including tubers), flowers, tissues and organs, wherein each of the aforementioned carry at least one of the herein described mutations. The term "plant" also encompasses plant cells, suspension cultures, callus tissue, embryos, meristematic regions, gametophytes, sporophytes, pollen and microspores, again wherein each of the aforementioned comprises the mutations as described herein. The invention also extends to harvestable parts of a plant of the invention as described herein, but not limited to seeds, leaves, fruits, flowers, stems, roots, rhizomes, tubers and bulbs. The aspects of the invention also extend to products derived, preferably directly derived, from a harvestable part of such a plant, such as dry pellets or powders, oil, fat and fatty acids, starch or proteins. In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a product derived from a plant as described herein or from a part thereof.

In a most preferred embodiment, the plant part or harvestable product is a seed or grain. Therefore, in a further aspect of the invention, there is provided a seed or grain produced from a genetically altered plant as described herein. Accordingly, in one aspect of the invention there is provided seed, wherein the seed contains one more of the genetic alterations described herein - specifically, the seed comprises one or more mutations in RPN10. Also provided is progeny plant obtained from the seed as well as seed obtained from that progeny.

In an alternative embodiment, the plant part is pollen, a propagule or progeny of the genetically altered plant described herein. Accordingly, in a further aspect of the invention there is provided pollen, a propagule or progeny produced from a genetically altered plant as described herein.

A control plant as used herein according to all of the aspects of the invention is a plant which has not been modified according to the methods of the invention. Accordingly, in one embodiment, the control plant does not have one of the mutations in RPN10 described herein. In one embodiment, the control plant is a wild type plant. The control plant is typically of the same plant species, preferably having the same genetic background as the modified plant.

While the foregoing disclosure provides a general description of the subject matter encompassed within the scope of the present invention, including methods, as well as the best mode thereof, of making and using this invention, the following examples are provided to further enable those skilled in the art to practice this invention and to provide a complete written description thereof. However, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the specifics of these examples should not be read as limiting on the invention, the scope of which should be apprehended from the claims and equivalents thereof appended to this disclosure. Various further aspects and embodiments of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of the present disclosure.

"and/or" where used herein is to be taken as specific disclosure of each of the two specified features or components with or without the other. For example "A and/or B" is to be taken as specific disclosure of each of (i) A, (ii) B and (iii) A and B, just as if each is set out individually herein.

Unless context dictates otherwise, the descriptions and definitions of the features set out above are not limited to any particular aspect or embodiment of the invention and apply equally to all aspects and embodiments which are described.

The foregoing application, and all documents and sequence accession numbers cited therein or during their prosecution ("appln cited documents") and all documents cited or referenced in the appln cited documents, and all documents cited or referenced herein ("herein cited documents"), and all documents cited or referenced in herein cited documents, together with any manufacturer's instructions, descriptions, product specifications, and product sheets for any products mentioned herein or in any document incorporated by reference herein, are hereby incorporated herein by reference, and may be employed in the practice of the invention. More specifically, all referenced documents are incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual document was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

The invention is now described in the following non-limiting example.

EXAMPLE I: SAP05 alters plant architecture

We previously identified the SAP05 effector of the phytoplasma Aster Yellow strain Witches Broom (AY-WB)12. Here, we observed that Arabidopsis thaliana plants stably expressing the AY-WB SAP05 gene under the control of the Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S ubiquitous promoter showed a range of architectural differences from control plants that express the gene for green fluorescent protein (GFP) (Fig. 1a-c). During vegetative growth, these SAP05 plants displayed accelerated leaf initiations and therefore produced more rosette leaves (Fig. 1a, d). In addition, the leaves of mature rosettes lacked serrated edges (Fig. 1a). Upon entering the reproductive stage, SAP05 plants bolted and flowered earlier (Fig. 1b,e), produced more lateral shoots and secondary branches and showed reduced height (Fig 1c,f,g). Twenty-six of 32 lines developed abnormal flowers (Fig 1c, inset) with no or fewer-than-normal seeds. Phytoplasmas reside within the cytoplasm of plant phloem sieve cells, where they secrete effectors that unload from the phloem into adjacent plant tissues. To mimic SAP05 release in the phloem, we generated stable transgenic A. thaliana lines expressing SAP05 from the phloem-specific AtSUC2 promoter The AtSUC2::SAP05 plants exhibited similar architectural changes to the 35S::SAP05 plants. Overall, mature 35S::SAP05 and AtSUC2::SAP05 plants appeared stunted and bushy, a phenotype that resembles the witch’s broom symptoms typically observed in phytoplasma-infected plants.

Phytoplasmas often depend on insect vectors for transmission and spread. In addition to inducing developmental phenotypes, phytoplasma virulence factors increase plant susceptibility to their insect vectors. Hence, we investigated whether SAP05 affects A. thaliana susceptibility to the most important insect vector of AY-WB phytoplasma, the leafhopper Macrosteles quadrilineatus. The insects preferred to reproduce on 35S::SAP05 A. thaliana plants as compared to 35S::GFP control plants in both choice and no-choice fecundity tests (Fig. 1 h), suggesting that SAP05 also contributes to the plants’ increased susceptibility to the leafhopper vectors.

EXAMPLE II SAP05 degrades GATAs and SPLs via RPN10

SAP05 interacted with several A. thaliana zinc-finger transcription factors, specifically GATAs and SPLs, in a yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) screen against an A. thaliana seedling library (Fig. 2a). Of the 29 GATA and 16 SPL family members in A. thaliana, 26 GATAs and 12 SPLs were successfully cloned and shown to interact with SAP05 in Y2H assays (Fig 2b), indicating that SAP05 most likely binds all members of both families. SPLs regulate plant developmental phase transitions, and most are developmentally regulated by microRNA156 (miR156), whereas GATA proteins regulate photosynthetic processes, leaf development and flower organ development. In addition, the A. thaliana 26S proteasome subunit RPN10 was identified as a potential SAP05 interactor in the Y2H screen. RPN10 is located within the 19S regulatory particle of the proteasome and serves as one of the main ubiquitin receptors recruiting ubiquitinated proteins for proteasomal degradation.

To investigate whether SAP05 degrades GATA and SPL transcription factors in plant cells, we transiently co-expressed several GATA or SPL genes with SAP05 (or GFP as control) in A thaliana protoplasts. GATA proteins were absent or less abundant in the presence of SAP05 as compared to GFP (Fig. 2c, left panel). Similarly, the abundances of five SPL proteins were visibly reduced in the presence of SAP05 (Fig. 2c, right panel). Addition of MG132, a potent proteasome inhibitor, inhibited the SAP05-mediated destabilisation of two GATA proteins tested (Figure 2I). Together, these data indicate that SAP05 degrades GATA and SPL transcription factors, likely via the 26S proteasome.

The GATA and SPL transcription factor families evolved independently, though both have zinc-finger (ZnF) DNA-binding domains. The ZnF domain of the GATA family contains one C4-type zinc-binding site of approximately 50 residues and is conserved among plants, animals and fungi, whereas that of SPL proteins is approximately 80 amino acids, contains two zinc-binding sites of the C2HC and the C3H types and is specific to plants (Fig. 2a). Nevertheless, the ZnF domains of SPLs and GATAs are both sufficient to mediate SAP05 binding in Y2H experiments (Fig. 2b).

To investigate the role of RPN10 in the SAP05-mediated destabilisation of plant transcription factors, we made use of the existing and well-described A. thaliana loss-of- function rpn10 mutant line rpn10-2. In the protoplasts of rpn10-2 plants, SAP05 no longer degraded GATA18/HAN or GATA19, whereas when A. thaliana RPN10 was reintroduced into the protoplasts, these plant transcription factors were degraded (Fig. 2f). Therefore, RPN10 is required for the SAP05-mediated degradation of plant targets.

RPN10 is one of the primary ubiquitin receptor proteins in eukaryotes. RPN10 has two main domains, an N-terminal vWA (von Willebrand factor type A) domain required for RPN10 docking to the proteasome and a C-terminal half with ubiquitin-interacting motifs (UIM) involved in binding to ubiquitin chains that are attached to lysine residues of proteins directed to the proteasome for degradation (Fig. 2d). SAP05 interacted with the vWA domain but not the UIM domain of A. thaliana RPN10 (Fig. 2e). GATA18 and GATA19 proteins in which all lysines were replaced by arginines were also degraded in an SAP05-dependent manner (Fig. 2g). Moreover, SPL or GATA zinc-finger domains alone that are sufficient for SAP05 binding were degraded in the presence of SAP05 (Fig. 2h— j). These results indicate that SAP05 directly targets proteins that it interacts with for degradation and that lysine ubiquitination is not required for this degradation. In fact, SAP05 fused to a GFP-nanobody, a single-chain antibody domain that specifically recognizes GFP, also degraded GFP in A thaliana protoplasts (Fig. 2k). Therefore, the phytoplasma SAP05 has evolved a mechanism to achieve selective protein degradation by hijacking the plant host 26S proteasome component RPN10.

Example III SAP05 degrades GATAs and SPLs in planta

To investigate whether SAP05 degrades GATAs and SPLs in whole plants, we made use of existing A. thaliana lines that ectopically express GATA and SPL protein-coding regions, leading to overexpression (OE) as compared to wild-type plants. These included: (i) the full-length coding region of a Cucumis sativus L. GATA 18 homologue (CsHANI) under the control of the 35S promoter in the A. thaliana han mutant (han-2) background (ii) the full-length coding region of A. thaliana SPL5 under the control of the 35S promoter; and (iii) miR156-resistant forms of SPL11 and SPL13 (rSPL11 and rSPI13, respectively) fused with a p-glucuronidase (GUS) under the control of their native promoter. The CsHAN1-OE produced leaves with more severe serrations than those of the original han-2 line (Fig 3a, b), which is consistent with the described functions of HAN, whereas introduction of SAP05 into this line alleviated the serration phenotype (compare han-2 HAN-OE to han-2 HAN-OE x 35S::SAP05 plants, Fig. 3a, b). Similarly, the reduction in rosette leaf production of OE lines for SPL5, rSPL11 and rSPL13 and the early bolting phenotype of SPL5-OE plants were relieved in the presence of SAP05 (Fig. 3a,c,d). These data provide evidence that SAP05 also degrades GATAs and SPLs in whole plants.

To investigate whether GATAs and SPLs are degraded during phytoplasma infection, we made use of lines that stably produce GUS-fused rSPL11 and rSPL13 proteins driven by their native promoters. Newly emerged or developing leaves of phytoplasma-infected plants had visibly reduced GUS activities compared to un-infected plants (Fig. 3e,f). Therefore, SPL transcription factors are degraded in planta during phytoplasma infection.

Example IV: Insect-guided plant resistance to SAP05

Animals also have GATA transcription factors and RPN10 proteins. GATA transcription factors have multiple roles in humans and animals, including the regulation of processes related to immunity. SAP05 expression has been detected in phytoplasma-colonised insects. To investigate whether phytoplasma SAP05 also interacts with the GATA proteins of the leafhopper vector, we first mined the transcriptome assembly of M.quadrilineatus for GATA transcription factors and identified six distinct transcripts with typical GATA ZnF domains. None of these ZnF domains interact with SAP05 in Y2H analyses, indicating that SAP05 may not interact with insect vector GATA transcription factors.

We also identified M. quadrilineatus RPN10 (MqRPNIO), which is highly similar in sequence to A. thaliana RPN10 (AtRPNIO) (Fig. 4a and Fig. 6). However, in Y2H assays, SAP05 did not bind MqRPNIO, its vWA domain or a hybrid RPN10 (hRPNIO) consisting of the M. quadrilineatus vWA domain and the A. thaliana C-terminal (UIM) domain (Fig. 4b). Comparison of multiple vWA domains of plant and animal RPN10 homologues revealed differences between the two groups in two regions corresponding to amino acids 39-40 (GA vs. HS) and 56-58 (GKG vs. K) in the vWA domain (Fig. 4a). Changing these residues within the plant RPN10 to those present in the animal homologues, to generate RPN10_39GA40->HS (ml) and RPN10_56GKG58->K (m2), resulted in loss of SAP05 binding in Y2H assays (Fig. 4b). All the RPN10 variants interacted with the A. thaliana RADIATION SENSITIVE23 (RAD23B) protein, a ubiquitin shuttle factor that binds RPN10, indicating that the RPN10 variants are functional in the Y2H assays. SAP05 degradation assays of AtGATA18 in A. thaliana rpn10-2 protoplasts showed that GATA18 was less degraded in the presence of MqRPNIO, hRPNIO and RPN10 ml compared to AtRPNIO (Fig. 4c), indicating that the AtRPNIO vWA domain, and particularly the GA residues that are unique to plant versus animal RPN10 proteins, are involved in the SAP05-mediated degradation of plant GATA18. Therefore, by replacing those residues with those in the same locations in the animal proteins, we were able to engineer A. thaliana RPN10 to become more resistant to SAP05 binding and degradation.

Plant resistance to pathogens may be achieved by knocking out effector targets or susceptibility genes. Knocking out multiple GATA and SPL proteins in plants is tedious and can cause pleiotropic phenotypes. Moreover, RPN10 has an essential function in A. thaliana, and rpn10 null mutants have pleotropic phenotypes, including severe growth defects. However, transforming the A. thaliana RPN10 mutant rpn10-2 with the SAP05 non-interacting allele AtRPNIO ml under the control of the native RPN10 promoter to create rpn10-2 AtRPN10::AtRPN10 ml plants, hereafter called eRPNIO (A. thaliana engineered RPN10) for short, rescued the developmental defects of the rpn10-2 plants, producing a phenotype similar to that erf rpn10-2 complemented with wild-type A. thaliana RPN10 (rpn10-2 AtRPN10::AtRPN10, hereafter cRPNIO, for RPN10 complementation) (Fig. 6). Introducing the 35S::SAP05 construct into eRPNIO plants generated wild-type- looking plants without obvious development phenotypic abnormalities for all 33 independent transformants, unlike introduction of 35S::SAP05 into cRPNIO plants which yielded typical SAP05 phenotypes in 30 out of 34 independent transformants (Figs. 1a,b and 4d,e). Therefore, the RPN10_39GA40->HS mutation confers resistance to phytoplasma-SAP05-mediated developmental changes in A. thaliana. Moreover, the phytoplasma insect vector M. quadrilineatus did not show a reproduction preference for 35S::SAP05 eRPNIO versus eRPNIO plants, unlike for 35S::SAP05 cRPNIO versus cRPNIO plants (Fig. 4f) and 35S::SAP05 versus GFP plants (Fig. 1 h), indicating that RPN10_39GA40->HS also confers resistance to SAP05-mediated plant susceptibility to the phytoplasma insect vector M. quadrilineatus.

The AY-WB phytoplasma secretes an arsenal of virulence factors, among which only TENGLI, SAP11 , SAP54, and herein SAP05, have been functionally investigated. To investigate the contribution of SAP05 to symptom development due to AY-WB phytoplasma infection in A. thaliana, we infected wild-type, cRPNIO and eRPNIO plants with AY-WB phytoplasma. The infected wild-type and cRPNIO plants produced large quantities of small, deformed leaves and more lateral shoots compared to plants of similar age not infected with phytoplasma (Fig. 4g, h). The symptoms of these infected plants resembled the phenotypes of 35S::SAP05 plants (Fig. 1a-c) and cRPNIO 35S::SAP05 plants (Fig. 4d). By contrast, eRPNIO A. thaliana infected with phytoplasma did not produce severely deformed leaves or more lateral shoots as compared to the non-infected plants (Fig. 4g, h). All AY-WB-infected A. thaliana genotypes produced leaflike flowers that resemble the phyllody symptoms of AY-WB-infected plants, indicating that the engineered RPN10 allele does not interfere with the leaf-like flower phenotype induced by the AY-WB phytoplasma effector SAP54. These data demonstrate that the AY-WB SAP05 effector is largely responsible for the shoot proliferation induction/witches’-broom-like symptoms generated during AY-WB infection in A. thaliana.

Discussion

Multiple pathogen effectors target the host ubiquitin-26S proteasome system. However, effectors described so far mostly interfere with aspects of the ubiquitination machinery, such as ubiquitin and E1 , E2 and E3 ligase activity, or inhibit the general enzymatic activities of the host 26S proteasome. Here we identified an effector that directly binds a 26S proteasome component leading to the degradation of substrates, without the apparent requirement for ubiquitination. The plant ubiquitin proteasome system tightly regulates GATA and SPL abundance, and SAP05 generates a short cut that does not depend on ubiquitin. To date, effectors that directly link host targets to the proteasome system in a ubiquitin independent manner are not known. Thus, the mode of action we have identified involving SAP05 is potentially significant. Whereas cellular protein levels may be altered by gene knockout and RNA silencing, some systems require the direct targeting of proteins for degradation. In fact, targeted protein degradation has become one of the most promising approaches for drug discovery in targeted therapies. Current approaches to changing protein abundance in cells rely on substrate ubiquitination: for example, the proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) technique uses small-molecule ligands that create complexes between E3 ligases and targets, a process that can be challenging. Our study of phytoplasma effectors has revealed an alternative approach whereby bridging targets directly onto proteasome subunits, such as RPN10, results in efficient protein degradation.

This strategy of engineering targets to become resistant to effector modulation may be used to engineer resistance to the effectors of other pathogens. However, effectors of more specialised pathogens may not have evolved to avoid modulation of targets within organisms that they do not colonise. Insect-transmitted pathogens have mechanisms to differentially modulate primary host versus insect vector processes: for instance, liberibacters and phytoplasmas differentially regulate effector gene expression depending whether they colonise plants or insect vectors. Here we show evidence that where conserved proteins among divergent organisms are targeted, effectors appear to avoid binding targets in certain hosts. Such effectors may also be present in other multihost pathogen systems, including insect-transmitted pathogens, such as B. burgdorferi, Y. pestis and Liberibacter spp., exposing an Achilles heel of multi-host pathogens that can be exploited to achieve resistance.

Example VI: Material and Method

Plant growth conditions

A. thaliana Columbia-0 ecotype (Col-0) plants were grown in the greenhouse under either long-day (16 h light/8 h dark) or short-day conditions (10 h light/8 h dark) at 22°C. To generate 35S::SAP05 or AtSUC2::SAP05 plants, a codon-optimised SAP05 coding sequence without the secretory signal peptide was used. Transgenic plants were generated as previously described.

Yeast two-hybrid analysis

The initial Y2H screen of SAP05 against the A. thaliana seedling library was performed by Hybrigenics Services SAS (Paris, France). The coding sequence of SAP05 without the secretory signal peptide was cloned into a pB27 bait plasmid as a C-terminal fusion to the LexA domain). The prey library was constructed from an A. thaliana seedling cDNA library, with pP6 as the prey plasmid. In a second yeast two-hybrid screen, the same SAP05 sequence was cloned into the pDEST32 plasmid and screened against an A. thaliana transcription factor library (pDEST22-TF). The identified interactions were further confirmed using the Matchmaker Gold yeast two-hybrid system (Clontech) or the DUALhybrid system (Dualsystems Biotech).

Protoplast degradation assays

A. thaliana (Col-0) mesophyll protoplast isolation and transformation were carried out according to the methods of Yoo et al.. Briefly, mesophyll protoplasts were isolated from leaves of 4-5-week-old A. thaliana plants grown under short-day conditions. For transfection, 300 pl of fresh protoplast solution (120,000 protoplasts) was transformed with 24 pg of high-quality plasmids (12 pg each for co-transfection) using the PEG- calcium method. Transfected protoplasts were incubated at room temperature (22-25 °C) for 16 h in the dark before harvest. For MG132 treatment, a final concentration of 20 pM was used during the 16-h incubation period. For detection of proteins on western blots, whole protein extracts from protoplasts were separated on NuPAGE 4-12% BisTris Gels (Invitrogen) and transferred to 0.45-pm PVDF membranes (Thermo Scientific) using the Bio-Rad mini-PROTEAN Electrophoresis system. Membranes were blocked by incubation in 5% (w/v) milk power in phosphate-buffered saline and 0.1 % (v/v) Tween- 20 for 2 h at room temperature. Primary antibody incubation was carried out at 4 °C overnight. Antibody to SAP05 from AY-WB phytoplasma were raised to the mature part of the SAP05 protein (residues 33-135), which was produced with a 6XHis-tag into Escherichia coli and purified. The purified protein was used for raising polyclonal antibodies in rabbits (Genscript). Optimal detection of SAP05 in phytoplasma-infected plants occured at a 1 :2,000 dilution of the antibody, and this dilution was used in all western blot experiments for detection of SAP05. The OptimAb HA.11 monoclonal antibody (Eurogentec) was used to detect hemagglutinin (HA)-fusion proteins at the concentration of 0.5 pg/ml. Rabbit polyclonal anti-GFP antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) was used at a 1 :10,000 dilution. Protein loading was visualised using Amido black staining solution (Sigma).

GUS staining

GUS staining of healthy or phytoplasma-infected plants at 4 weeks after phytoplasma inoculation was performed as described previously.

Insect fecundity assay

The aster leafhopper M. quadrilineatus was reared on oats under long-day conditions at 22 °C. A. thaliana plants used for insect fecundity assays were grown on insecticide-free F2 compost soil (Levington) in 8 x 8 cm pots under short-day conditions for 4 weeks. For choice fecundity assay, three control plants and three experiment plants, placed in an alternating manner, were bagged together in a perforated bag. Twenty leafhoppers (10 females and 10 males) were released into the bag for 5 d and removed. The plants were then bagged individually and the nymphs that developed on each plant were scored 2-3 weeks after leafhopper removal. The experiments were repeated at least three times. For no-choice fecundity assays, the plants were bagged individually from the beginning. Ten leafhoppers (six females and four males) were kept on each plant for 5 d and removed. The number of nymphs produced on each plant was scored 2-3 weeks after leafhopper removal. For each genotype, at least three plants were used in no-choice fecundity assays.

Phytoplasma inoculation

M. quadrilineatus colonies carrying the AY-WB phytoplasma were reared on infected lettuce and china aster under long-day conditions at 24 °C. For A. thaliana inoculation, one leaf from a 4-week-old plant grown under short-day conditions was exposed to two or three leafhoppers from this colony in a clip cage for 2 d. The leaf and the clip cage were then removed to get rid of the insects. The plants were then transfer to either short- day or long-day conditions for recording of disease symptoms.

Phylogenetic analysis

Sequences were aligned with MUSCLE (v3.8.31) configured for highest accuracy. Phylogenetic trees were reconstructed using the maximum-likelihood method implemented in the PhyML program (v3.1/3,0 aLRT). Graphical representation and editing of the phylogenetic trees were performed with TreeDyn (v198.3).

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed in Prism 7. /_² test was used to analyse choice fecundity assay data. One-way ANOVA was used to analyse no-choice fecundity assay data with more than 2 two experimental groups, and two-tailed unpaired Student’s t-test was used for other data analysis.

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• RPN 10 cDNA sequences

Underlined bases are mutation/substitution positions in the cDNA sequence that lead to a 39-40 GA to HS mutation in the amino acid sequence of AtRPNIO or a homologous mutation at a homologous position in a homologous sequence (homologous mutations are underlined).

SEQ ID NO: 1 >NM_120024.3:140-1300 Arabidopsis thaliana regulatory particle non- ATPase 10 (RPN10), cDNA ATGGTTCTCGAGGCGACTATGATATGTATCGACAACTCCGAGTGGATGCGAAACG GAGATTACTCTCCGTCTAGGTTACAGGCGCAAACGGAAGCTGTTAATCTTCTTTGC GGAGCCAAAACCCAGTCGAATCCGGAGAATACGGTGGGGATTTTGACAATGGCT GGCAAAGGAGTTAGAGTATTGACTACTCCTACCTCTGATCTTGGCAAAATTCTGGC CTGTATGCACGGCCTTGATGTGGGAGGAGAGATCAACTTAACCGCAGCTATCCAG ATCGCCCAGCTAGCTCTTAAGCATCGCCAAAACAAGAATCAACGCCAAAGGATTA TTGTTTTTGCTGGAAGTCCAATCAAGTACGAGAAGAAGGCCCTAGAGATAGTTGG AAAAAGGCTGAAGAAGAATAGTGTCTCTCTTGATATTGTCAATTTCGGGGAGGATG ATGATGAGGAAAAGCCTCAGAAACTCGAGGCGCTCCTTACAGCTGTGAATAACAA TGACGGTAGCCACATTGTTCATGTTCCTTCTGGAGCCAATGCTCTCTCAGATGTGC TTCTCAGCACACCTGTATTCACGGGTGATGAGGGTGCAAGTGGCTATGTTTCTGC GGCAGCTGCTGCAGCGGCCGCAGGTGGGGACTTCGACTTTGGTGTGGACCCAAA TATCGATCCAGAACTTGCTCTTGCCCTTCGGGTCTCCATGGAGGAGGAGAGAGCA AGACAAGAAGCTGCTGCCAAGAAGGCGGCCGATGAGGCAGGTCAGAAAGACAAA GATGGGGACACAGCTTCCGCCTCACAGGAGACAGTTGCTAGGACAACTGACAAG AACGCTGAACCAATGGATGAGGACAGTGCGTTGCTAGATCAGGCAATTGCTATGT CTGTTGGTGATGTGAATATGTCAGAAGCGGCTGATGAGGACCAGGATCTGGCTTT AGCTCTGCAAATGTCAATGAGTGGGGAAGAGTCAAGTGAAGCTACAGGTGCTGGA AACAACCTCTTGGGAAATCAAGCCTTCATATCGTCTGTTCTCTCATCGCTTCCTGG GGTGGATCCAAATGATCCGGCAGTTAAAGAACTACTAGCGTCTCTGCCAGACGAG TCAAAGCGTACCGAGGAGGAAGAGAGTAGTAGCAAAAAAGGCGAGGATGAGAAG AAGTGA

SEQ ID NO: 2>Brassica_napus_BnaA06g37370D

ATGATATGCATCGACAACTCAGAGTGGATGAGAAACGGAGATTACTCACCCTCTA GGTTGCAGGCTCAAACCGAAGCTGTCAATCTTCTCTGCGGTGCCAAAACTCAGTC GAATCCAGAGAACACGGTAGGGATCTTGACAATGGCGGGCAAAGGAGTTAGAGT TTTGACGACGCCTACCTCTGATCTTGGCAAAATTTTGGCCTGTATGCACGGGCTC GATGTGGGAGGAGAGATTAACTTAACGGCAGCCATCCAGATTGCCCAGCTTGCTC TTAAGCATCGCCAAAACAAGAATCAACGCCAACGGATTATTGTTTTCGCTGGAAGC CCAATCAAGTATGAAAAGAAGGCCTTGGAGGTTGTTGGCAAAAGGCTCAAAAAGA ACAGTGTCTCTCTTGACGTTGTCAATTTTGGTGATGATGACGATCAGGATAAGCCT CTCAAACTGGAGGCCCTCCTTTCTTCTGTCAATAACAACGATGGTAGCCACATTGT TCATGTTCCTTCTGGTCCCAACGCCCTCTCTGATGTCCTTCTCAGCACACCTGTAT TCACTGGTGATGAGGGTGCAAGTGGGTATGTTTCTGCCGCAGCTGCTGCTGCTG

CTGCCGGTGGTGACTTTGACTTTGGTGTTGATCCAAATATCGATCCAGAGCTTGCT

CTCGCCCTTCGGGTCTCCATGGAAGAGGAGAGAGCAAGGCAAGAGGCTGCTGCT

AAGAAGGCAGCTGATGAGGCAGGTCAGAAAGACCAAGATGGGGCTTCAGCTTCT

GCTTCGCAGGAGACGGTTGCTAGGACAACTGAGAAGAACGCTGAACCAATGGAT

GAGGACAACGCATTGCTAAATCAGGCAATTGCTATGTCCGTTGGTGATGTAAACAT

GTCAGAAGCGGCAGATGAGGACCAGGATTTGGCTTTAGCTCTGCAAATGTCAATG

AGTGGGGAGGAAGCTACGGGTGCTGGAAACCTCTTAGGAGATCAAGCTTTCATAT

CATCTGTTCTCTCATCCCTTCCAGGGGTGGATCCAAATGATCCAGCGGTTCAAGC

GCTGCTAGCGTCTCTGCCAGACGAATCAAAGCGTAACGAGGAGGAAGAGAGTAG

TAGCAAAGGTGAGGATGAGAAGAAGTGA

SEQ ID NO: 3>Brassica_napus_BnaC07g47640D

ATGATATGCATCGACAACTCCGAGTGGATGAGAAACGGAGATTACTCACCCTCTA

GGTTACAAGCTCAAACCGAAGCTGTCAATCTTCTCTGCGGTGCCAAAACCCAGTC

GAATCCAGAGAACACGGTGGGGATCTTGACAATGGCAGGGAAAGGAGTTAGAGT

TTTGACGACGCCTACCTCTGATCTTGGCAAGATTCTGGCCTGTATGCACGGCCTC

GATGTTGGAGGAGAGATTAACTTAACGGCAGCCATCCAGATTGCTCAGCTTGCTC

TTAAGCATCGCCAAAACAAGAATCAACGCCAACGGATTATTGTTTTCGCTGGAAGC

CCAATCAAGTATGAAAAGAAGGCCTTGGAGGTTGTTGGCAAAAGGCTCAAAAAGA

ATAGTGTCTCTCTTGACATTGTCAATTTTGGTGAAGATGACGATCAGGATAAGCCT

CTGAAACTGGAGGCCCTCCTTTCTGCTGTCAATAACAACGATGGTAGCCACATTG

TTCATGTTCCTTCTGCTGCCAATGCTCTCTCCGATGTCCTCCTCAGCACACCTGTA

TTCACTGGTGATGAGGGTGCAGCTGGGTATGTTTCTGCTGCAGCTGCAGCCGGT

GGTGACTTTGACTTTGGTGTTGATCCAAATATCGATCCAGAGCTTGCTCTTGCCCT

TCGGGTCTCCATGGAGGAGGAGAGAGCAAGGCAAGAGGCTGCTGCTAAGAAGGC

AGCTGATGAGGCAGGTCAGAAAGACCAAGATGGGGCTTCTGCTTCGCAGGAGAC

GGTTGCTAGGACAACTGAGAAGAACGCTGAACCAATGGATGAGGACAACGCATTG

CTAAATCAGGCAATTGCTATGTCCGTAGGTGATGTAAACATGTCAGAAGCGGCGA

ATGAGGACCAGGACTTGGCTTTAGCTCTTCAAATGTCAATGAGTGGGGAGGAGTC

AAATGAAGCTATGGGTGCTGGAAACCTCTTAGGAGATCAAGCTTTCATATCATCTG

TTCTCTCATCGCTTCCAGGGGTGGATCCAAATGATCCAGCGGTTCAAGCGCTGCT

AGCGTCTCTGCCAGACGAATCAAAGCGTAACGAGGAGGAAGAGAGTAGTAGCAA

AGGTGAGGATGAGAAGAAGTGA

SEQ ID NO: 4>Brassica_napus_BnaA08g16980D

ATGATTTGCATCGACAACTCCGAGTGGATGCGAAACGGAGATTACTCTCCCTCTA

GGCTACAGGCTCAAACCGAAGCTGTTAATCTTCTCTGTGGGGCCAAAACCCAGTC

GAATCCGGAGAATACAGTGGGGATCTTGACAATGGCTGGGAAAGGAGTTAGAGTT

TTGACAACTCCTACCTCTGATCTTGGCAAAATCTTGGCGTGTATGCATGGACTTGA

GGTGGGAGGGGAGATTAACTTAACGGCTGCGATACAGATTGCTCAGCTAGCTCTT

AAGCATCGTCAAAACAAGAATCAACGCCAAAGGATTATTGTTTTTGCTGGAAGCCC

AATCAAGTATGAAAAGAAGGCCTTGGAGGTTGTTGGGAAAAGGCTCAAGAAGAAT

AGTGTCTCTCTTGACATTGTCAATTTTGGAGATGATGATGATGAGGAAAAACCTCA

GAAACTTGAGGCCCTCCTTGCAGCTGTCAATAACAATGACGGAAGCCACATTGTT CATGTTCCTTCTGGGGCCAATGCTCTCTCTGATGTGCTTCTCAGCACACCTGTATT

CACGGGTGATGAGGGTGCAAGTGGGTATGTTTCTGCGGCAGCTGCTGCAGCTGC

AGCGGGTGGTGACTTTGACTTTGGTGTGGATCCAAATATCGACCCAGAACTTGCT

CTTGCCCTTCGAGTCTCCATGGAGGAGGAGAGAGCAAGGCAAGAGGCTGCTGCT

AAGAAGGCAGCCGATGAGGCAGGTCAGAAAGACAAAGACGGGGATACAGCTTCG

GCCTCACAGGAGACGGTTGCTAGGACAACCGAGAAGAACGCTGAACCAATGGAT

GAGGACAACGCATTGCTAGACCAGGCAATTGCTATGTCCGTAGGTGATGTAAACA

TGTCAGAAGCGGCGGATGAGGACCAGGATTTGGCTTTAGCGCTGCAAATGTCAAT

GAGTGGGGAAGAGTCAGGTGAAGCTACGGGTGCTGGAAACCTCTTAGGAGATCA

AGCTTTCATATCATCTGTTCTCTCATCGCTTCCAGGGGTGGATCCAAATGATCCAG

CGGTTCAAGCGCTGCTAGCGTCTCTGCCAGACGAATCAAAGCGTAACGAGGAAG

AGAGTAACAGCAAAGGTGAGGATGAGAAGAAGTGA

SEQ ID NO: 5>Brassica_napus_BnaC03g60090D

ATGATTTGCATCGACAACTCCGAGTGGATGCGAAACGGAGATTACTCTCCCTCTA

GGTTACAGGCTCAAACCGAAGCTGTTAATCTTCTCTGTGGGGCCAAAACCCAGTC

GAATCCGGAGAACACGGTGGGGATCTTGACAATGGCAGGGAAAGGAGTTAGAGT

GTTGACAACTCCTACCTCTGATCTTGGCAAAATCTTGGCCTGTATGCACGGTCTCG

ATGTGGGAGGAGAGATTAACTTAACAGCTGCGATACAGATTGCTCAGCTAGCTCT

TAAGCATCGTCAAAACAAGAATCAACGCCAAAGGATTATTGTTTTTGCTGGAAGCC

CAATCAAGTATGAAAAGAAGGCCTTGGAGGTTGTTGGCAAAAGGCTCAAGAAGAA

TAGTGTCTCTCTTGACATTGTCAATTTTGGAGATGATGACGATGAGGAAAAGCCTC

AGAAACTTGAGGCCCTCCTTGCAGCTGTCAATAACAATGACGGAAGCCACATTGT

TCATGTTCCTTCTGGAGCCAATGCTCTCTCTGATGTGCTTCTCAGCACACCTGTAT

TCACTGGTGATGAGGGTGCAAGTGGGTATGTTTCTGCGGCAGCAGCTGCAGCTG

CAGCAGGTGGTGACTTTGACTTTGGTGTGGATCCAAATATCGACCCAGAACTTGC

TCTTGCCCTTCGAGTCTCCATGGAGGAGGAGAGAGCAAGGCAAGAGGCTGCTGC

TAAGAAGGCAGCGGATGAGGCAGGTCAGAAAGACAAAGACGGGGATACAGCTTC

GGCCTCACAGGAGACGGTTGCTAGGACAACTGAGAAGAACGCTGAACCAATGGA

TGAGGACAACGCATTGCTAGACCAGGCAATTGCTATGTCCGTAGGTGATGTAAAC

ATGTCAGAAGCGGCGGATGAGGACCAGGATTTGGCTTTAGCGCTGCAAATGTCAA

TGAGTGGGGAAGAGTCAGGTGAAGCTACGGGTGCTGGAAACCTCTTAGGAGATC

AAGCTTTCATATCATCTGTTCTCTCGTCGCTTCCAGGGGTGGATCCTAATGATCCA

GCGGTTCAAGCGCTGCTAGCGTCTCTGCCAGACGAATCAAAGCGTAACGAGGAA

GAGAGTAACAGCAAAGGTGAGGATGAGAAGAAGTGA

SEQ ID NO: 6>XM_002264522.3 Vitis vinifera 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog (LOG 100257366)

ATGGTGCTCGAGGCGACTATGATCTGTATCGACAATTCCGAATGGATGCGAAATG

GCGATTATTCTCCCACTAGATTTCAGGCTCAAGCCGACGCCGTTAATCTTATCTGT

GGAGCTAAGACTCAGTCCAATCCAGAAAATACTGTGGGAGTTCTTACAATGGCAG

GCAAAGGGGTCCGAGTTTTGGTCACTCCCACAAGCGATCTCGGCAAGATCTTGGC

GTGCATGCACGGTTTAGAGGTGGGTGGTGAGATGAACTTAGCCGCAGGTATCCA

AGTGGCTCAATTGGCTCTTAAGCATCGACAAAACAAAAAGCAGCAACAAAGGATC

ATTGTCTTTGCTGGAAGTCCTGTAAAGTATGACAAGAAGGTATTAGAGATGATTGG AAGAAAGCTAAAAAAGAATAGTGTGGCCATTGATATTGTGGATTTTGGTGAGGATG ATGATGGGAAGCCAGAGAAACTTGAGGCCCTTCTTGGTTCTGTAAACAACAATGA TAGTAGCCACATAGTTCATGTTCCTGCTGGTCCAAATGCTCTTTCTGACGTGCTTA

TAAGTACACCCATCTTCACAGGGGATGGGGAAGGTGGAAGTGGTTTTGCAGCAG

CTGCCGCCGCAGCAGCAGCTGGTGGTGTGGCTGGTTTTGATTTTGGTGTGGATC

CAAACTTAGATCCTGAACTGGCTCTTGCTCTTAGAGTTTCAATGGAAGAAGAGAGA

GCGAGACAAGAAGCTGCTGCTAAAAAGGCTGCGGAGGAGGCTTCCAGACAGGAA

AAGGAAGGGGAACAGCAATCTAGTTCTCAAGATGCAACTATGACTGAGCACGCCA

ATGTTGCAGCTTCTGATGCTGATAAGAAAAGTGATCTAATGGATGATGAGAATGCT

TTGCTACAGCAGGCCCTTGCAATGTCTATGGATGACCCTGCCACTAGCCTTGCCA

TGAGAGACACAGATATGTCTGAGGCAGCTGCAGATGATCAGGACTTGGCTCTTGC

TCTTCAATTATCTGTGCAGGACACTGGAAAAGATTCAACCAGTCAGACCGACATGA GTAAATTGTTGACAGATCAGACTTTTGTGTCCTCTATCCTTGCATCTCTTCCAGGA GTTGACCCCAATGATCCTTCAGTCAAAGATTTGCTAGCATCCATGCAAAATGAGTC

AGAGTCCCAGCAGAAGAAGAATGAGGACAAGGCACCAGATGAGGAAGACAAGTG A

SEQ ID NO: 7>XM_003520152.4 Glycine max 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog (LOG 100780583)

ATGGTGCTCGAGGCGACTATGATCTGTATTGACAATTCGGAATGGATGCGTAACG

GGGATTACTCTCCTTCTCGATTTCAAGCCCAAACAGACGCCGTCAATCTTATTTGC

GGTGCTAAAACCCAGTCTAATCCAGAAAATACGGTGGGAGTTCTCACGATGGCGG

GGAAGGGCGTTCGTGTTTTGGTGACCCCTACCAGTGATCTGGGCAAGATCTTAGC

TTGCATGCATGGACTAGAAATAGGCGGTGAGATGAATCTAGCTGCTGGCATTCAG

GTTGCACAATTGGCTCTTAAGCATCGGCAGAACAAGAAGCAGCAGCAAAGGATTA

TTGTCTTTGCTGGAGGTCCTGTTAAGCATGAGAAGAAAATGTTGGAGATGATTGG

GAGAAAATTGAAAAAGAATAGTGTAGCTCTTGACATTGTCAATTTTGGTGAAGAAG

ATGAGGGGAAGACAGAGAAGTTGGAGGCACTCCTTTCAGCTGTTAACAATAATGA

TACCAGCCACATTGTTCATGTTCCATCTGGTCCAAACGCTCTTTCTGATGTACTAA

TAAGTACTCCTATTTTTACTGGTGATGGGGAAGGTGGAAGTGGTTTTGCAGCAGC

TGCTGCTGCAGCAGCAGCAGGCGGTGTATCTGGATTTGAGTTTGGTGTTGATCCA

AACTTGGACCCTGAACTGGCTCTTGCTCTAAGAGTTTCAATGGAAGAAGAGAGAG

CCAGACAAGAAGCAGCTGCCAAAAAGGCATCAGAGGATGCTTCCAAACAGGAGA

AAGATGGTGAGCAGCAAGCTAGCCCACAGGATACAACAATGACTGAGGGTGCCA

GTGCAGCAGCTTCTGAAGCCGAGACTAAGAGAACTGATTTGACGGACGATGAGAA

TGCTCTTCTACAGCAGGCCCTTGCAATGTCAATGGATGATCCCACAATTAACCATG

AAGTGAGAGATACAGATATGTCTGAAGCAGCTGCTGAAGATCCCGAGTTGGCTCT

AGCTCTCCAATTGTCAGTAGAAGACAGCTCAAAGGACTCGGCAAGCCAGTCTGAC

GTGAGTAAACTGTTGGCAGATCAGTCCTTTGTATCTTCTATCCTTGCATCGCTTCC TGGGGTTGACCCAAATGACCCATCTGTCAAAGATTTGCTGGCTTCCATGCAAAATC AGTCTGAGCCACAGCAGAAGAATGAAGACAAGCCACCAAATGAAGAGGAGAAAAA

ATAA

SEQ ID NO: 8 >XM_015776829.2 Oryza sativa Japonica Group 26S proteasome non- ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog (LOC4332222) ATGGTGCTCGAGGCGACGATGATCTGCATAGACAACTCGGAGTGGATGCGGAAC

GGCGACTACTCGCCGTCGCGATTCCAGGCTCAGGCCGACGCCGTCAACCTCATC

TGTGGCGCCAAGACCCAGTCCAACCCGGAGAACACGGTGGGCGTCATGACGATG

GCCGGAAAGGGCGTGCGCGTGCTCGTCACTCCCACCAGCGACCTCGGCAAGATC

CTCGCTTGTATGCACGGACTTGAAGTTGGTGCTGAAGCAAATTTGGCTGCAGCAA

TTCAGGTTGCTCAGCTGGCTCTGAAGCATCGCCAGAATAAGAGGCAGCAACAGC

GGATTATAGCTTTTATTGGAAGCCCTGTGAAATACGACAAGAAAGTTTTGGAAACA

ATCGGGAAAAAGCTGAAGAAGAATAATGTGGCTCTTGACATCGTTGACTTTGGTG

AAACCGATGATGATAAGCCTGAGAAACTGGAAGCGCTAATCTCTGCTGTGAACAG

TAGTGATAGCAGCCACATCGTTCATGTCCCTCCCGGTGAAAATGCCCTTTCCGAT

GTGCTTATAAGTACTCCTATCTTCACTGGTGAAGAAGGTGGAAGCGGTTTTGCTG

CTTCTGCAGCAGCAGCAGCAGCTACTGGTGCAGCTGGATTTGAATTTGATGTGGA

CCCAAATGTAGATCCAGAATTGGCACTCGCCCTGCGGTTGTCCATGGAAGAAGAG

CGAGCAAGGCAAGAGGCTATTGCGAAGAAGGCCGCAGAAGAATCTTCTGGTGCT

GAAAATAAGGACCATGCCTCAAGCTCAAACGCTGATTCTGTTATGGCAGAAGCGG

AACCTGCCTCAAATGCTGCTGATGATAAAAAAGATCAGCCGAAGGAAGATGATGA

TGCTCAGCTACTACAACAGGCTCTTGCAATGTCAATGGAGGAGGGTTCTTCAGGG

GCTGCAGCGGCTGATGCTGCTATGGCAGAGGCTGCTGTAGATGACCAGGACTTG

GCACTAGCTCTTCAAATGTCTGTCCAGGACGCAGGCGGGTCTAGTCAGTCTGATA

TGAGCAAGGTGTTTGAAGACAGATCATTTGTTACATCCATCCTTAACTCTCTCCCT

GGTGTTGACCCCAATGACCCCTCTGTGAAAGATTTGCTGGCATCATTGCATGGGC

AGGGCGAGCAAGAGAAGAAGGAAGACAAATCAGACAAGCCAGAAGATGAGAAGA

AATAA

SEQ ID NO: 9>XM_026020592.1 Oryza sativa Japonica Group 26S proteasome non-

ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog (LOC4348083)

ATGGTGCTCGAGCTCGAGGCGACGGTGATATGCGTGGACGACTCCGAGTGGATG

CGGAACGGCGACTACCCGCCGACGCGGCTCCAGGCGCAGGAGGACGCCGCCAA

CCTCGTCGTCGGCACTAAAATGACGTCGAACCCGGAGAACACGGTCGGGGTGCT

GGCCATGGCTGGGGACAGAGTGCGCGTGCTCCTCGCGCCCACCAGCGACCCCG

TCAAGTTCCTCGCCTGCATGCACGGGCTGGAAGCTAGTGGTGAAGCAAATTTGAC

TGCTACTCTAAATATTGCTGAACTGGTACTTAAAAATCGTCCCGACAAAAGACTGA

GTCAGAGGATAGTTGTTTTTGTTGGCAGCCCTGTAAAAGATGAAAAGTTAGAGACA

ATTGGAAAAAAGCTGAAGAAGTATAATGTTTCTCTTGATGTTGTTGAATTTGGCGA

ATCTGACGATGAAAAGCCTGAGAAACTAGAAGCTCTTGTTGCTGCAGTTGGTGGC

AGCAGCCACATAGTTCACATCCCACCTGGGGAAGATCTTCGTGCCGTCCTTGCCA

ATACACCGATAATTACTGGAGATGAAGGAGGGGGTGCTGCAGCCGGTGGAGCAT

CTAGATATGAATACAATGTTGACCCAAATGTGGATCCAGAGTTTGCAGAAGCACTT

CGTTTATCAGAGATAGCAAGGCAAGAAGCTGCAGCCGATGGAGCATCTAGATATG

AATACAGTGTTGACCCAAATGCGGATCCAGAGTTAGCAGAAACATTTCGTTTGGCT

GCAGGGGAACCTTCAACCTCAAACACTGATACTGTTCTCTTGGAATCTGACTCAGA

CACTTATGTTCCTTTTCATGAGTTCATACAAAATAATCCTTTTGTGACTGGAGCGGA

ATCTGCCTCAGATAGACCTGCTGACGATGAGAGGGCAACGGAAGAAGGGTTCCG

TATGATACGAGAAGCTCTTGCAAGGTCTGCAAATGCAGCACATGCTGAAATATCA

GGCAATTCCTCATCTGGGCAGGAGTTGGAATTAGGTTAA SEQ ID NO: 10>XM_010318126.3 Solanum lycopersicum 26S proteasome non- ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog (LOC101263071)

ATGGTGCTCGAGGCGACAATGATCTGCATCGACAATTCGGAGTGGATGAGAAACG

GTGATTACTCGCCCAATAGGTTCCAAGCTCTAGCAGACGCTGTTAATCTAATCTGT

GGTGCCAAAACCCAGTCTAATCCCGAGAATACAGTTGGAATTTTGACGATGGCTG

GTAAAGGGGTTCGAGTGTTAGTCACTCCGACCAGCGATCTTGGAAAAATTTTAGC TTGTATGCACGGATTGGAGATAGGCGGTGAGATGAATTTGGCTGCTGGAATCCAG

GTAGCCCAGTTGGCTTTGAAGCACCGACAAAACAAGAAGCAACAACAAAGGATTA TTGTTTTTGCTGGCAGCCCTGTTAAATATGACAAGAAGGTCTTGGAGATGATTGGG

AGAAAGTTGAAGAAGAATAGTGTAGCTCTTGATGTGGTTAATTTTGGTGAAGATGA

TGAAGGGAAAGCTGAGAAGCTAGAGGCACTAGTTGCTGCGCTTAATACCAACGAC

AGTAGTCACATCATTCATATTCCTCCTGGTCCTAATGCTCTCTCTGATGTTCTCATA

AGTACTCCTATTTTCACTGGTGATGGAGAAGGTGGCAGTGGATTTGCTGCTGCTG

CTGCAGCGGCTGCTGCTGGTGGAGTGTCTGGATATGATTTTGGTGTAGATCCTAA

TTTGGATCCAGAACTTGCTCTCGCACTCCGAGTTTCAATGGAGGAAGAAAGGGCG

AGGCAGGAAGCAGCTGCAAAGAAGGCTGCAGAAGAAGCTGGTAACCAAGAGAAA

GGAGAAAATCAGTCTACTTCTCAGGATGTTGCTATGGCTGAAAATGTCAATGCAG

GAACTTCTGAGCCTGAAAGCAAAGCAACTGACCTAATGGATGATGAGAATGCCTT

GTTACAGCAAGCCCTTGCAATGTCGATGGATGACTCGTCCTCCAATGTTGCTACA

CGAGACACTGACATGTCAGAAGCGGCTTCTGAAGATCAAGACTTGGCACTTGCTC

TTCAACTGTCTGTGCAAGACAGTACAAATGATCAGTCAAATCCGACAGATATGAGT

AAGCTGTTGGCAGATCAATCATTTGTGTCATCAATCCTTGCCTCACTTCCAGGTGT TGATCCAAACGATCCTTCTGTCAAAGATTTGCTTGCTTCCATGCAAGGGCAGTCCG

AGCAGAAGAAGGATGAGGACAATGATAAGGAACAGAAAGAGGACAAGAAGTAA

SEQ ID NO: 11>XM_006422562.2 Citrus Clementina 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog (LOC18035426)

ATGGTTCTCGAGGCGACTATGATATGCATTGACAATTCGGAATGGATGCGAAACG

GCGATTACTCTCCGTCACGATTACGAGCTCAAGCGGACGCCGTTAGTCTTATTTG

TGGAGCCAAAACACAATCGAACCCGGAGAATACCGTGGGGATATTGACGATGGG

TGGCAAAGGGGTTCGTGTTTTGACTACTCCTACAACTGATCTTGGGAAAATTTTAG

CTTGCATGCATGAACTTGATATTGGGGGTGAGATGAACATAGCGGCAGGAATCCA

GGTTGCTCAGTTGGCTCTTAAGCATCGGCAGAACAAAAACCAGCGTCAAAGGATT

ATAGTTTTTGCTGGAAGTCCTGTTAAGTATGATAGGAAGGTAATGGAGATGATTGG

GAAGAAATTGAAGAAGAACAGTGTGGCTATTGATATTGTTAATTTTGGTGAAGATG

ATGATGGGAAGCCAGAGAAATTGGAAGCACTTCTTGCTGCAGTTAATAACAATGAT

AGTAGTCATCTAGTTCATGTTCCTACTGGTCCAAATGCTCTTTCTGATGTACTTATA

AGCTCACCTGTATTCACTGCTGATGGTGAAGGAGGAAGTGGCTTTGCTGCAGCAG CGGCGGCAGCTGCAGCTGGTGGAGTTTCTGACTTCGATTTTGGTGTGGACCCCA

ACATTGACCCTGAACTGGCTCTTGCCCTTAGGGTTTCCATGGAAGAGGAGAGAGC

AAGGCAAGAAGCTGCTGCCAAAAGGGCTGCTGATGAAGCTTCCAGACAAGGGAA

AGAGGAGGAGCCATCATCCAACTCACAGGATGCAACGATGACTGACAATACTAAC

AATACAGCAGCAGAAACAACTGAGAAAACTGCTGATCCAATGGATGAAGAGAAAT CTTTGCTAGAGAGGGCTTTTGCAATGTCCATGGGTACTTCTGTATCTGATACTTCC ATGGCTGATGCTGATACGTCAAAAGCGACTGATGAGGATAAGGAGTTGGCCTTGG

CTCTCCAAATGTCCATGCAGGATGATACAAAAGATCCATCAAACCAATCAGATATG

AGCAAGGTGCTAGGGGATCAGTCATTTGTGTCATCCATCCTTACATCACTTCCAG

GAGTTGACCCAAATGATCCATCGGTGAAAGATCTGATTGCATCTCTTCAAGGTCAA

CCTGAGTCATCTGAACAGAAGAAGAAAGAAGATGAACCCCCAAAGGATGATAAGT

GA

SEQ ID NO: 12>XM_008374684.3 Malus domestica 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog (LOG 103436261)

ATGGTTCTCGAGGCGACTATGATCTGCGTCGACAATTCCGAATGGATGCGAAACG

GCGATTACTCTCCCTCCCGATTGCAGGCTCAAGCTGACGCCATTAATCTCATCTGT

GGTGCCAAAACCCAGGCTAATCCGGAGAATACAGTTGGGGTATTGACAATGGCG

GGCAAAGGGGTGCGGGTTTTGGCTACTCCAACCTCTGATCTTGGCAGGATTTTGG

CTTGCATGCATGGTCTGGAGATGGGAGGTGAGATGAACATAGCAGCTGCAATCCA

GGTAGCACAGCTGGCTCTTAAGCATCGTCAAAACAAAAATCAACAACAGCGGATT

ATTGTTTTTGCTGGAAGTCCTGTTAAATTTGAAAAGAAGTTGTTGGAATCGATAGG

GAAGAAATTGAAAAAGAACAGTGTTGCTCTTGACATTGTTGATTTTGGTGAAGAGG

ATGATGGGAAGCCAGAGAAGCTGGAGGCCCTTCTGTCTGCTGTTAATAATAATGA

AAGCAGTCATATAGTACATGTCCCTCCTGGTCCAAATGCTCTCTCGGATGTTCTTA

TAAGTACACCTGTATTTACTGGTGACGGAGAAGGAGGAAGTGGTTTTGCAGTGGC

GGCGGCAGCAGCAACTGCTGCTGCTAATGGTGGCTCTGGGTATGACTTTGGAGT

TGATCCCAACATTGATCCTGAGCTGGCTCTCGCCCTTAGAGTTTCTATGGAAGAG

GAAAGGGCTAGGCAAGAAGCTGCTGCCAAAAGAGCTTCTGAAGAAGCTGGTGGG

AAAGGAGGGGAACCGTCATCCAAATCAGAAGATGCAACCATGACAGATCAAGCTA

ATGTTTCTTCTCCCAATGAGGATAAGAAACATACTGATAATATGGTTGATGAGAAT

GACTTGCTGAAGGAGGCTCTTGCAATGTCAATGAACGTCTCTGGAACTGGTCATT

CAGCAGGTGATACTGAGATGTCCGAAGCAACTAGTGCGGATCAGGAGTTGGCATT

AGCTCTTCAAATGTCGATGCAGGAAAGTGCAGGAGAGCCATCCTCCCAGAGCGAT

GCGAGCAAGGTGTTGGAGGATCAGTCTTTTATATCATCTATCCTTGAATCTCTTCC

AGGAGTTGACCCCAACGATCCTTCAGTGAAAGATCTTCTTGCATCTCTGAAGAATC

AGTCTGAGCAGAAGGACAAAGAAGAACCATCGAACAAGGACAAATGA

SEQ ID NO: 13>XM_006340687.2 Solanum tuberosum 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog (LOC102594714)

ATGGTGCTCGAGGCGACAATGATCTGCATCGACAATTCGGAGTGGATGCGAAAC

GGTGATTACTCGCCCAATAGGTTCCAAGCTCTAGCAGACGCTGTTAATCTAATCTG

TGGTGCCAAAACCCAGTCTAATCCCGAGAATACAGTTGGAATTTTGACGATGGCT

GGTAAAGGGGTTCGAGTGTTAGTCACTCCGACTAGCGATCTTGGAAAAATCTTAG

CTTGTATGCACGGATTGGAGATAGGCGGTGAGATGAATTTGGCTGCTGGAATCCA

GGTAGCCCAGTTGGCATTGAAGCACCGACAAAACAAGAAGCAACAACAAAGGATC

ATTGTTTTTGCTGGCAGCCCTGTTAAATATGACAAGAAGGTCTTGGAGATGATTGG

GAGAAAGTTGAAGAAGAATAGTGTAGCACTTGATGTGGTTAATTTTGGTGAAGATG

ATGAAGGGAAAGCTGAGAAGCTAGAGGCACTAGTTGCTGCGCTTAATACCAATGA

CAGTAGTCACATCATTCATATTCCTCCTGGTCCTAATGCTCTCTCTGATGTTCTCAT

AAGTACTCCTATTTTCACTGGTGATGGTGAAGGTGGCAGTGGATTTGCTGCTGCT GCTGCAGCGGCTGCTGCTGGTGGAGTGTCTGGATATGATTTTGGTGTAGATCCTA

ATTTGGATCCGGAACTTGCTCTCGCACTCCGAGTTTCAATGGAGGAAGAAAGGGC

GAGGCAGGAAGCAGCCGCAAAAAAGGCTGCAGAAGAAGCTGGTAACCAAGAGAA

AGGAGAAAATCAGTCTACTTCCCAGGACGTTGCTATGGCTGAAAATGTCAATGCA

GGAACTTCTGAGCCCGAAAGCAAAGCTACCGACCTAATGGATGATGAGAATGCCT

TGTTACAGCAAGCCCTTGCAATGTCGATGGACGACTCGTCCTCCAATGTTGCTAC

ACGAGACACTGACATGTCAGAAGCAGCTTCTGAAGATCAAGACTTGGCACTTGCT

CTTCAACTGTCTGTGCAAGACAGTACAAATGATCAGTCAAATCAGACAGATATGAG

TAAGCTGTTGGCAGATCAATCATTTGTGTCATCAATCCTTGCCTCACTTCCAGGTG

TTGATCCAAACGATCCTTCCGTTAAAGATTTGCTTGCTTCCATGCAAGGCCAGTCT

GAGCAGAAGAAGGATGAGGACAATGATAAGGAACAGAAAGAGGAAAAGAAGTAA

SEQ ID NO: 14>XM_006343297.2 Solanum tuberosum 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog (LOG 102584699)

ATGGTGGAGGAGGCTGTAATGATCTGTATTGATAATTCTGAATGGATGCGTAATG

GTGATTACTCGCGCAACCGGTTTGATGCACAATATTCGGCTTTTACTTCGATTTGT

GGTTTCAAACACCTGGCAAACCCTGAGAGTACAGTCGGAGCATTAACCATGGCTG

GCAAAGGAGTTCGTGTATTAATCACTCCAACCAATGACTTTGGAGAAATGTTATCT

TGCATTAACGGATTAAATATCGGTGGTGAGATGAATTTGGCTGCTGGACTCCAGG

TGGCACAGTTGGCTCTGAAGCATCGGCAAAACAAAAAGCAGCATCAAAAGATCAT

TCTTTTTGCTGGCAGCCCTGTTAAAGAAGACAAGAGGGTCTTGGAGATGATTGGA

AGAAAGTTGAATAAGCATAGAGTAGCTCTTGATGTTATTAATTTTGGTCAAGAAGAT

AACAGGAAGGCTGAGAAGCTGGAGGCATTAGTTGCTGCAGTTAACAACAATGATA

ACAGTCACATCATTTATATTCCTCCTGGGGCTAGGGATCTTTCTGATGTGCTAGGG

AGGAATCCTATCTTTACTAGAGATGTTGACTCTAGAAAGAGATTTGCTGCGGTTGC

TTCTGGTGCAGGGTCTGGCTATGATTTTGGTGTTGATCCTAACTTGGATCCTGAGA

TTGCTCTGGCACTTCGAGTTTCAATGGAGGAGGAAAGGGATAGACAAGCAGCAGC

AGCAAAGAAGGCTGCACAAGAAGCTGCAAAACAAGAAAAAGGAGAAATGCAGTCA

ACTTCCCAGGATGTTACAATGACTGAAAATGTCAGTGCTCGAAAGTCTGAAACTAA

AAACAAGGCAGCTGATCTACTGGATAATGATCATTCCCTGTTACAACAAGCACTTG

CAATGTCGAGGGATGATTCTTCCTCCAACACTGCTACAAGAGACACAGACATGTC

AGAAGCAGATTTTGAAGATCGGGAGTTGCTACTAGATCTTCTTTTATTCATACAGG

ACAATTCAAAAGATGAGACAAATGTCACTAAATTGTTGGCAAACCAATCACTCGTG

CCATCAATTCTTGCTTCAATTCTAGGTGTTGATCCGAATGACCCTTCAATTGAAGTT

TTACTTGCTTCTATGCAAAGTCAGTCTGAGAATGACGAGAACAAGGAACAACGAG

AGGACAAGGAACAGAAAGAAGACAAGAAGTGA

SEQ ID NO: 15> TraesCS4B02G227200.2 4B [Triticum aestivum]

ATGGTGCTCGAGTCGACGATGATCTGCATAGACAACTCGGAGTGGATGCGGAAC

GGCGACTACTCGCCGTCCCGCTTCCAGGCGCAGGCCGACGCCGTCAACCTCATC

TGCGGCGCCAAGACCCAGTCGAACCCGGAGAATACGGTGGGCGTCATGACGATG

GCCGGCAAGGGCGTGCGCGTGCTTGTCACTCCCACCAGCGACCTCGGCAAGATC

CTCGCCTGTATGCACGGGCTGGAAGTTGGAGCTGAAGCAAACTTGGCCGCAGCT

ATTCAGGTTGCTCAGCTGGCGCTAAAGCATCGCCAGAATAAGAGGCAACAGCAGA

GAATTATTGTTTTCATTGGAAGCCCTGTGACATACGACAAGAAGGTCTTGGAGACA ATAGGGAAGAAGCTGAAGAAGAATAATGTTGCCCTTGACGTTGTTGATTTTGGTGA

AACTGATGATGAAAAGCCTGAGAAACTGGAAGCGCTGATCGCTGCTGTGAACAGC

AGTGATAGCAGCCACATCGTCCATGTCCCTCCGGGTGACCATGCCCTTTCTGATG

TTCTTATAAGCACTCCTATCTTTACTGGTGAAGAAGGTGGAAGTGGCTTTGCTGCT

TCTGCAGCAGCTGCTGCAGCCACCGGAGCTACCGGATATGATTTTGGTGTGGAC

CCAAATGTGGATCCAGAGTTGGCACTTGCCCTACGGTTGTCTATGGAGGAAGAGC

GAGCTAGGCAAGAGGCTATCGCGAAAAAGGCTGCAGAAGACAACAAGGATCATG

CCTCGAGCTCTACTGATGCTATTATGGCTGAAGCGGAACTTACCTTAAATGCTCCT

GCTGATGTTGACGCAGATCTACTGAAGTGTAACCCACAGGATGATGATGATGCTC

AGCTACTACAGCAAGCACTCGCTATGTCAATGGATGAGGGTGCTTCAGGATCTGC

AGCTGTGGCTGATGCTGCTATGGCAGAAGCTGCTGCAGATGACCAGGATTTGGC

ATTGGCTCTTCAAATGTCTGTCCAGGACGCAGAGGTGGCTGGTCAATCTGATATG

AGCAAAGTGTTTGAGGACAGGTCATTTGTGACATCCATCCTTAATTCGCTTCCTGG

TGTTGACCCCAATGACCCATCTGTGAAAGATCTACTGGCTTCTTTGCATGGCCAAG

GAGAGGAGGAGAAGAAAGATAAGGAGGACAAGCCAGACAAGCCTGAAGATGGGA

AGAACTAA

SEQ ID NO: 16>TraesCS4A02G0713004A [Triticum aestivum]

ATGGTGCTCGAGTCGACGATGATCTGCATAGACAACTCGGAGTGGATGCGGAAC

GGCGACTACTCGCCGTCCCGCTTCCAGGCGCAGGCCGACGCCGTCAACCTCATC

TGCGGCGCCAAGACCCAGTCGAACCCGGAGAATACGGTGGGCGTCATGACGATG

GCCGGCAAGGGCGTGCGCGTGCTTGTCACCCCCACCAGCGACCTCGGCAAGAT

CCTCGCCTGTATGCACGGGCTGGAAGTTGGAGCTGAAGCAAACTTGGCCGCGGC

TATTCAGGTTGCTCAGCTGGCGCTAAAGCATCGCCAGAATAAGAGGCAACAGCAG

AGAATTATTGTTTTCATTGGAAGCCCTGTGACATACGACAAGAAGGTCTTGGAGAC

AATAGGGAAGAAGCTGAAGAAGAATAATGTTGCCCTTGACGTTGTTGATTTTGGTG

AAACTGATGATGAAAAGCCTGAGAAACTGGAAGCGCTGATCGCTGCTGTGAACAG

CAGTGATAGCAGCCACATCGTCCACGTCCCTCCGGGTGACCATGCCCTTTCTGAT

GTTCTTATAAGCACTCCTATCTTTACTGGCGAAGAAGGTGGAAGTGGCTTTGCTGC

TTCTGCAGCAGCTGCTGCAGCCACCGGAGCTACTGGATATGATTTTGGCGTGGAC

CCAAATGTGGACCCAGAGTTGGCACTTGCCCTACGGTTGTCTATGGAGGAAGAGC

GAGCTAGGCAAGAGGCTATCGCGAAAAAGGCTGCAGAAGACAACAAGGATCAGC

CCTCAAGCTCTACCGATGCTATTATGGCTGAAGCGGAACTTACCTTAAATGCTCCT

GCTGATGTTGACGCAGATCTACTCAAGGATGATGATGATGCTCAGCTACTACAGC

AAGCACTTGCTATGTCAATGGATGAGGGTGCTTCAGGAGCTGCAGCCGTGGCTG

ATGCTGCTATGGCAGAAGCTGCTGCAGATGACCAGGATTTGGCATTGGCTCTTCA

AATGTCTGTCCAGGACGCTGAGGCGGCTGGTCAATCTGATATGAGCAAAGTGTTT

GAAGACAGATCATTTGTGACATCCATCCTTAATTCGCTTCCTGGTGTTGACCCCAA

TGACCCATCTGTGAAAGATCTACTGGCATCTTTGCATGGCCAAGGAGAGCAGGAG

GAGAAGAAAGATAAGGAGGACAAGCCAGACATTTCTGAAGATGGGAAGAACTGA

SEQ ID NO: 17 >TraesCS4D02G2279004D [Triticum aestivum]

ATGGTGCTCGAGTCGACGATGATCTGCATAGACAACTCGGAGTGGATGCGGAAC

GGCGACTACTCGCCGTCCCGCTTCCAGGCGCAGGCCGACGCCGTCAACCTCATC

TGCGGCGCCAAGACCCAGTCGAACCCGGAGAATACGGTGGGCGTCATGACGATG GCCGGCAAGGGCGTGCGCGTGCTTGTCACTCCCACCAGCGACCTCGGCAAGATC CTCGCCTGTATGCACGGGCTGGAAGTTGGAGCTGAAGCAAACTTGGCCGCAGCT ATTCAGGTTGCTCAGCTGGCGCTAAAGCATCGCCAGAATAAGAGGCAACAGCAGA GAATTATTGTTTTCATTGGAAGCCCTGTGACATACGACAAGAAGGTTTTGGAGACA ATAGGGAAGAAGCTGAAGAAGAATAATGTTGCCCTTGACGTTGTTGATTTTGGTGA AACTGATGATGAAAAGCCCGAGAAACTGGAAGCGCTGATCGCTGCTGTGAACAGC AGTGATAGCAGCCACATCGTCCATGTCCCTCCGGGTGATCATGCCCTTTCTGATG TTCTTATAAGCACTCCTATCTTTACTGGTGAAGAAGGTGGAAGTGGCTTTGCTGCT TCTGCAGCAGCTGCTGCAGCCACCGGAGCTACTGGATATGATTTTGGCGTGGAC CCAAATGTGGATCCAGAGTTGGCACTTGCCCTACGGTTGTCTATGGAGGAAGAAC GAGCTAGGCAAGAAGCTATCGCGAAGAAGGCTGCAGAAGACAACAAGGATCAGG CCTCAAGCTCTACTGATGCTATTATGGCTGAAGCAGAACTTACCTTAAATGCTCCT GCTGATGTTGACGCAGATCTACTGAAGGATGATGATGATGCTCAGCTACTACAGC AAGCACTCGCTATGTCAATGGATGAGGGTGCTTCAGGAGCTGCAGCCGTGGCTG ATGCTGCTATGGCAGAAGCTGCTGCAGATGACCAGGATTTGGCATTGGCTCTTCA AATGTCTGTCCAGGATGCAGAGGCGGCTGGTCAATCTGATATGAGCAAAGTGTTT GAAGACAGATCATTTGTGACATCCATCCTTAATTCGCTTCCTGGTGTTGACCCCAA TGACCCATCTGTGAAAGATCTACTGGCATCTTTGCATGGCCAAGGAGAGCAGGAG GAGAAGAAAGATACGGAGGACAAGCCAGACAAGCCTGAAGATGGGAAGAACTGA

Protein

Underlined bases are mutation/substitution positions in the amino acid sequence that lead to a 38-39 GA to HS mutation in the amino acid sequence of AtRPNIO or a homologous mutation at a homologous position in a homologous sequence.

SEQ ID NO: 18>NP_195575.1 regulatory particle non-ATPase 10 [Arabidopsis thaliana] MVLEATMICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRLQAQTEAVNLLCGAKTQSNPENTVGILTMAGK

GVRVLTTPTSDLGKILACMHGLDVGGEINLTAAIQIAQLALKHRQNKNQRQRIIVFAGS PIKYEKKALEIVGKRLKKNSVSLDIVNFGEDDDEEKPQKLEALLTAVNNNDGSHIVHVP SGANALSDVLLSTPVFTGDEGASGYVSAAAAAAAAGGDFDFGVDPNIDPELALALRVS MEEERARQEAAAKKAADEAGQKDKDGDTASASQETVARTTDKNAEPMDEDSALLDQ AIAMSVGDVNMSEAADEDQDLALALQMSMSGEESSEATGAGNNLLGNQAFISSVLSS LPGVDPNDPAVKELLASLPDESKRTEEEESSSKKGEDEKK

SEQ ID NO: 19>Brassica_napus_BnaA06g37370D

MICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRLQAQTEAVNLLCGAKTQSNPENTVGILTMAGKGVRVLT TPTSDLGKILACMHGLDVGGEINLTAAIQIAQLALKHRQNKNQRQRIIVFAGSPIKYEKK

ALEWGKRLKKNSVSLDWNFGDDDDQDKPLKLEALLSSVNNNDGSHIVHVPSGPNA

LSDVLLSTPVFTGDEGASGYVSAAAAAAAAGGDFDFGVDPNIDPELALALRVSMEEE RARQEAAAKKAADEAGQKDQDGASASASQETVARTTEKNAEPMDEDNALLNQAIAM SVGDVNMSEAADEDQDLALALQMSMSGEEATGAGNLLGDQAFISSVLSSLPGVDPN DPAVQALLASLPDESKRNEEEESSSKGEDEKK SEQ ID NO: 20>Brassica_napus_BnaC07g47640D

MICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRLQAQTEAVNLLCGAKTQSNPENTVGILTMAGKGVRVLT

TPTSDLGKILACMHGLDVGGEINLTAAIQIAQLALKHRQNKNQRQRIIVFAGSPIKYEKK

ALEVVGKRLKKNSVSLDIVNFGEDDDQDKPLKLEALLSAVNNNDGSHIVHVPSAANAL

SDVLLSTPVFTGDEGAAGYVSAAAAAGGDFDFGVDPNIDPELALALRVSMEEERARQ

EAAAKKAADEAGQKDQDGASASQETVARTTEKNAEPMDEDNALLNQAIAMSVGDVN

MSEAANEDQDLALALQMSMSGEESNEAMGAGNLLGDQAFISSVLSSLPGVDPNDPA

VQALLASLPDESKRNEEEESSSKGEDEKK

SEQ ID NO: 21>Brassica_napus_BnaA08g16980D

MICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRLQAQTEAVNLLCGAKTQSNPENTVGILTMAGKGVRVLT

TPTSDLGKILACMHGLEVGGEINLTAAIQIAQLALKHRQNKNQRQRIIVFAGSPIKYEKK

ALEWGKRLKKNSVSLDIVNFGDDDDEEKPQKLEALLAAVNNNDGSHIVHVPSGANAL

SDVLLSTPVFTGDEGASGYVSAAAAAAAAGGDFDFGVDPNIDPELALALRVSMEEER

ARQEAAAKKAADEAGQKDKDGDTASASQETVARTTEKNAEPMDEDNALLDQAIAMS

VGDVNMSEAADEDQDLALALQMSMSGEESGEATGAGNLLGDQAFISSVLSSLPGVD

PNDPAVQALLASLPDESKRNEEESNSKGEDEKK

SEQ ID NO: 22>Brassica_napus_BnaC03g60090D

MICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRLQAQTEAVNLLCGAKTQSNPENTVGILTMAGKGVRVLT

TPTSDLGKILACMHGLDVGGEINLTAAIQIAQLALKHRQNKNQRQRIIVFAGSPIKYEKK

ALEWGKRLKKNSVSLDIVNFGDDDDEEKPQKLEALLAAVNNNDGSHIVHVPSGANAL

SDVLLSTPVFTGDEGASGYVSAAAAAAAAGGDFDFGVDPNIDPELALALRVSMEEER

ARQEAAAKKAADEAGQKDKDGDTASASQETVARTTEKNAEPMDEDNALLDQAIAMS

VGDVNMSEAADEDQDLALALQMSMSGEESGEATGAGNLLGDQAFISSVLSSLPGVD

PNDPAVQALLASLPDESKRNEEESNSKGEDEKK

SEQ ID NO: 23>XP_002264558.1 PREDICTED: 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog [Vitis vinifera]

MVLEATMICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPTRFQAQADAVNLICGAKTQSNPENTVGVLTMAGK

GVRVLVTPTSDLGKILACMHGLEVGGEMNLAAGIQVAQLALKHRQNKKQQQRIIVFAG

SPVKYDKKVLEMIGRKLKKNSVAIDIVDFGEDDDGKPEKLEALLGSVNNNDSSHIVHVP

AGPNALSDVLISTPIFTGDGEGGSGFAAAAAAAAAGGVAGFDFGVDPNLDPELALALR

VSMEEERARQEAAAKKAAEEASRQEKEGEQQSSSQDATMTEHANVAASDADKKSDL

MDDENALLQQALAMSMDDPATSLAMRDTDMSEAAADDQDLALALQLSVQDTGKDST

SQTDMSKLLTDQTFVSSILASLPGVDPNDPSVKDLLASMQNESESQQKKNEDKAPDE

EDK

SEQ ID NO: 24>XP_003520200.1 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog [Glycine max]

MVLEATMICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRFQAQTDAVNLICGAKTQSNPENTVGVLTMAGK

GVRVLVTPTSDLGKILACMHGLEIGGEMNLAAGIQVAQLALKHRQNKKQQQRIIVFAG

GPVKHEKKMLEMIGRKLKKNSVALDIVNFGEEDEGKTEKLEALLSAVNNNDTSHIVHV

PSGPNALSDVLISTPIFTGDGEGGSGFAAAAAAAAAGGVSGFEFGVDPNLDPELALAL RVSMEEERARQEAAAKKASEDASKQEKDGEQQASPQDTTMTEGASAAASEAETKRT DLTDDENALLQQALAMSMDDPTINHEVRDTDMSEAAAEDPELALALQLSVEDSSKDS ASQSDVSKLLADQSFVSSILASLPGVDPNDPSVKDLLASMQNQSEPQQKNEDKPPNE EEKK

SEQ ID NO: 25>XP_015632315.1 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog [Oryza sativa Japonica Group]

MVLEATMICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRFQAQADAVNLICGAKTQSNPENTVGVMTMAG KGVRVLVTPTSDLGKILACMHGLEVGAEANLAAAIQVAQLALKHRQNKRQQQRIIAFIG SPVKYDKKVLETIGKKLKKNNVALDIVDFGETDDDKPEKLEALISAVNSSDSSHIVHVPP GENALSDVLISTPIFTGEEGGSGFAASAAAAAATGAAGFEFDVDPNVDPELALALRLS

MEEERARQEAIAKKAAEESSGAENKDHASSSNADSVMAEAEPASNAADDKKDQPKE DDDAQLLQQALAMSMEEGSSGAAAADAAMAEAAVDDQDLALALQMSVQDAGGSSQ SDMSKVFEDRSFVTSILNSLPGVDPNDPSVKDLLASLHGQGEQEKKEDKSDKPEDEK K

SEQ ID NO: 26 >XP_025876377.1 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog [Oryza sativa Japonica Group] MVLELEATVICVDDSEWMRNGDYPPTRLQAQEDAANLWGTKMTSNPENTVGVLAM AGDRVRVLLAPTSDPVKFLACMHGLEASGEANLTATLNIAELVLKNRPDKRLSQRIVVF

VGSPVKDEKLETIGKKLKKYNVSLDWEFGESDDEKPEKLEALVAAVGGSSHIVHIPPG

EDLRAVLANTPIITGDEGGGAAAGGASRYEYNVDPNVDPEFAEALRLSEIARQEAAAD GASRYEYSVDPNADPELAETFRLAAGEPSTSNTDTVLLESDSDTYVPFHEFIQNNPFV TGAESASDRPADDERATEEGFRMIREALARSANAAHAEISGNSSSGQELELG

SEQ ID NO: 27 >XP_010316428.1 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog isoform X1 [Solanum lycopersicum]

MVLEATMICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPNRFQALADAVNLICGAKTQSNPENTVGILTMAGK GVRVLVTPTSDLGKILACMHGLEIGGEMNLAAGIQVAQLALKHRQNKKQQQRIIVFAG SPVKYDKKVLEMIGRKLKKNSVALDVVNFGEDDEGKAEKLEALVAALNTNDSSHIIHIP PGPNALSDVLISTPIFTGDGEGGSGFAAAAAAAAAGGVSGYDFGVDPNLDPELALALR

VSMEEERARQEAAAKKAAEEAGNQEKGENQSTSQDVAMAENVNAGTSEPESKATDL MDDENALLQQALAMSMDDSSSNVATRDTDMSEAASEDQDLALALQLSVQDSTNDQS NPTDMSKLLADQSFVSSILASLPGVDPNDPSVKDLLASMQGQSEQKKDEDNDKEQKE DKK

SEQ ID NO: 28 >XP_006422625.1 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog isoform X1 [Citrus Clementina]

MVLEATMICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRLRAQADAVSLICGAKTQSNPENTVGILTMGGK GVRVLTTPTTDLGKILACMHELDIGGEMNIAAGIQVAQLALKHRQNKNQRQRIIVFAGS PVKYDRKVMEMIGKKLKKNSVAIDIVNFGEDDDGKPEKLEALLAAVNNNDSSHLVHVP TGPNALSDVLISSPVFTADGEGGSGFAAAAAAAAAGGVSDFDFGVDPNIDPELALALR

VSMEEERARQEAAAKRAADEASRQGKEEEPSSNSQDATMTDNTNNTAAETTEKTAD PMDEEKSLLERAFAMSMGTSVSDTSMADADTSKATDEDKELALALQMSMQDDTKDP SNQSDMSKVLGDQSFVSSILTSLPGVDPNDPSVKDLIASLQGQPESSEQKKKEDEPP KDDK SEQ ID NO: 29 >XP_008372906.2 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog isoform X1 [Malus domestica]

MVLEATMICVDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRLQAQADAINLICGAKTQANPENTVGVLTMAGK

GVRVLATPTSDLGRILACMHGLEMGGEMNIAAAIQVAQLALKHRQNKNQQQRIIVFAG

SPVKFEKKLLESIGKKLKKNSVALDIVDFGEEDDGKPEKLEALLSAVNNNESSHIVHVP

PGPNALSDVLISTPVFTGDGEGGSGFAVAAAAATAAANGGSGYDFGVDPNIDPELAL

ALRVSMEEERARQEAAAKRASEEAGGKGGEPSSKSEDATMTDQANVSSPNEDKKHT

DNMVDENDLLKEALAMSMNVSGTGHSAGDTEMSEATSADQELALALQMSMQESAG

EPSSQSDASKVLEDQSFISSILESLPGVDPNDPSVKDLLASLKNQSEQKDKEEPSNKD K

SEQ ID NO: 30 >XP_006340749.1 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog isoform X1 [Solanum tuberosum]

MVLEATMICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPNRFQALADAVNLICGAKTQSNPENTVGILTMAGK

GVRVLVTPTSDLGKILACMHGLEIGGEMNLAAGIQVAQLALKHRQNKKQQQRIIVFAG

SPVKYDKKVLEMIGRKLKKNSVALDVVNFGEDDEGKAEKLEALVAALNTNDSSHIIHIP

PGPNALSDVLISTPIFTGDGEGGSGFAAAAAAAAAGGVSGYDFGVDPNLDPELALALR

VSMEEERARQEAAAKKAAEEAGNQEKGENQSTSQDVAMAENVNAGTSEPESKATDL

MDDENALLQQALAMSMDDSSSNVATRDTDMSEAASEDQDLALALQLSVQDSTNDQS

NQTDMSKLLADQSFVSSILASLPGVDPNDPSVKDLLASMQGQSEQKKDEDNDKEQK

EEKK

SEQ ID NO: 31>XP_006343359.1 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 4 homolog isoform X2 [Solanum tuberosum]

MVEEAVMICIDNSEWMRNGDYSRNRFDAQYSAFTSICGFKHLANPESTVGALTMAGK

GVRVLITPTNDFGEMLSCINGLNIGGEMNLAAGLQVAQLALKHRQNKKQHQKIILFAGS

PVKEDKRVLEMIGRKLNKHRVALDVINFGQEDNRKAEKLEALVAAVNNNDNSHIIYIPP

GARDLSDVLGRNPIFTRDVDSRKRFAAVASGAGSGYDFGVDPNLDPEIALALRVSME

EERDRQAAAAKKAAQEAAKQEKGEMQSTSQDVTMTENVSARKSETKNKAADLLDND

HSLLQQALAMSRDDSSSNTATRDTDMSEADFEDRELLLDLLLFIQDNSKDETNVTKLL

ANQSLVPSILASILGVDPNDPSIEVLLASMQSQSENDENKEQREDKEQKEDKK

SEQ ID NO: 32> TraesCS4B02G227200.2 4B [Triticum aestivum]

MVLESTMICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRFQAQADAVNLICGAKTQSNPENTVGVMTMAG

KGVRVLVTPTSDLGKILACMHGLEVGAEANLAAAIQVAQLALKHRQNKRQQQRIIVFIG

SPVTYDKKVLETIGKKLKKNNVALDVVDFGETDDEKPEKLEALIAAVNSSDSSHIVHVP

PGDHALSDVLISTPIFTGEEGGSGFAASAAAAAATGATGYDFGVDPNVDPELALALRL

SMEEERARQEAIAKKAAEDNKDHASSSTDAIMAEAELTLNAPADVDADLLKCNPQDD

DDAQLLQQALAMSMDEGASGSAAVADAAMAEAAADDQDLALALQMSVQDAEVAGQ

SDMSKVFEDRSFVTSILNSLPGVDPNDPSVKDLLASLHGQGEEEKKDKEDKPDKPED

GKN

SEQ ID NO: 33>TraesCS4A02G0713004A [Triticum aestivum] MVLESTMICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRFQAQADAVNLICGAKTQSNPENTVGVMTMAG

KGVRVLVTPTSDLGKILACMHGLEVGAEANLAAAIQVAQLALKHRQNKRQQQRIIVFIG

SPVTYDKKVLETIGKKLKKNNVALDVVDFGETDDEKPEKLEALIAAVNSSDSSHIVHVP

PGDHALSDVLISTPIFTGEEGGSGFAASAAAAAATGATGYDFGVDPNVDPELALALRL

SMEEERARQEAIAKKAAEDNKDQPSSSTDAIMAEAELTLNAPADVDADLLKDDDDAQ

LLQQALAMSMDEGASGAAAVADAAMAEAAADDQDLALALQMSVQDAEAAGQSDMS

KVFEDRSFVTSILNSLPGVDPNDPSVKDLLASLHGQGEQEEKKDKEDKPDISEDGKN

SEQ ID NO: 34 >TraesCS4D02G2279004D [Triticum aestivum]

MVLESTMICIDNSEWMRNGDYSPSRFQAQADAVNLICGAKTQSNPENTVGVMTMAG

KGVRVLVTPTSDLGKILACMHGLEVGAEANLAAAIQVAQLALKHRQNKRQQQRIIVFIG

SPVTYDKKVLETIGKKLKKNNVALDVVDFGETDDEKPEKLEALIAAVNSSDSSHIVHVP

PGDHALSDVLISTPIFTGEEGGSGFAASAAAAAATGATGYDFGVDPNVDPELALALRL

SMEEERARQEAIAKKAAEDNKDQASSSTDAIMAEAELTLNAPADVDADLLKDDDDAQ

LLQQALAMSMDEGASGAAAVADAAMAEAAADDQDLALALQMSVQDAEAAGQSDMS

KVFEDRSFVTSILNSLPGVDPNDPSVKDLLASLHGQGEQEEKKDTEDKPDKPEDGKN

SEQ ID NO: 35 Target_2: CGAATCCGGAGAATACGGTGGGG

SEQ ID NO: 36: Protospacer sequence: CGAATCCGGAGAATACGGTG

SEQ ID NO: 37 Target_4: TATGTATCGACAACTCCGAGTGG

SEQ ID NO: 38 Protospacer sequence: TATGTATCGACAACTCCGAG

SEQ ID NO: 39 Target_9: TATCGACACGATGGTTCTCGAGG

SEQ ID NO: 40 Protospacer sequence: TATCGACACGATGGTTCTCG

SEQ ID NO: 41 Target_11: CTGGGCGATCTGGATAGCTGCGG

SEQ ID NO: 42: Protospacer sequence: CTGGGCGATCTGGATAGCTG

SEQ ID NO: 43 Target_15: ATCTCCGTTTCGCATCCACTCGG

SEQ ID NO: 44 Protospacer sequence: ATCTCCGTTTCGCATCCACT

SEQ ID NO: 45 Target_21: TTTTCAGGCCTTGATGTGGGAGG

SEQ ID NO: 46 Protospacer sequence: TTTTCAGGCCTTGATGTGGG

SEQ ID NO: 48 SAP05 amino acid sequence >SAP05_AYWB MFKIKNNLLKSKIFVFILLGLFVIINNHQAMAAPNEEFVGDMRIVNVNLSNIDILKKHETFK KYFDFTLTGPRYNGNIAEFAMIWKIKNPPLNLLGVFFDDGTRDDEDDKYILEELKQIGN GAKNMYIFWQYEQK SEQ ID NO: 49 SAP05 cDNA sequence >SAP05_AYWB

ATGTTTAAAATCAAAAATAATTTATTAAAATCAAAAATATTTGTATTTATTTTATTAGG ATTATTTGTAATTATCAATAATCATCAAGCAATGGCTGCCCCTAATGAAGAGTTTGT TGGCGACATGAGAATAGTTAATGTAAATTTATCAAATATTGATATTCTTAAAAAACA

TGAAACATTTAAAAAATATTTTGATTTTACACTAACTGGTCCTCGTTATAATGGAAA CATAGCAGAATTTGCAATGATATGGAAAATTAAAAATCCGCCTCTTAATTTATTAGG

TGTTTTTTTTGATGATGGCACCAGAGATGATGAAGATGATAAATATATTTTAGAAGA ATTAAAACAAATAGGCAATGGAGCCAAAAATATGTATATTTTTTGGCAATATGAACA AAAATAA

Claims

CLAIMS:

1 . A method of providing resistance or increasing resistance of a host to a vector- borne pathogen, the method comprising: a. identifying at least one host protein that is the target of at least one pathogen effector; b. identifying at least one homologue of the host target protein in the vector; c. comparing the nucleic acid or protein sequence of the host target and vector homologue and identifying one or more differences in the nucleic acid or protein sequence between the host and vector nucleic acid or protein sequence; and d. introducing said one or more differences in nucleic acid or protein sequence into the host target protein; wherein introduction of one or more of the differences increases resistance to the vector-borne pathogen.

2. A genetically altered plant, part thereof or plant cell, wherein the plant comprises at least one mutation in at least one RPN10 gene.

3. The genetically altered plant of claim 2, wherein the mutation is a loss of function mutation.

4. The genetically altered plant of claim 2, wherein the mutation is in the N-terminal vWA (von Willebrand factor type A) domain of RPN10, wherein preferably the sequence of the vWA domain comprises or consists of SEQ ID NO: 47 or a homologue or variant thereof.

5. The genetically altered plant of claim 4, wherein the mutation is at position 38 and 39 of SEQ I D NO: 18 or at a homologous position in a homologous sequence.

6. The genetically altered plant of any of claims 2 to 5, wherein the mutation is a substitution.

7. The genetically altered plant, wherein the mutation is introduced using targeted genome editing.

8. The genetically altered plant of any of claims 2 to 7, wherein the plant is a monocot or dicot.

9. The genetically altered plant of claim 8, wherein the plant is selected from rice, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, potato, tomato, cotton, soybean, Brassica napus, cabbage, lettuce, carrot, asters, coconut, grape, apple, oranges and sugarcane.

10. The genetically altered plant of any of claims 2 to 9, wherein the plant part is a seed.

11 . A seed obtained or obtainable from the plant of any of claims 2 to 10.

12. A method of increasing resistance of a plant to vector-borne pathogen, the method comprising introducing at least one mutation into at least one RPN10 gene.

13. The method of claim 12, wherein the method further increases the resistance of the plant to the vector.

14. A method of producing a plant with increased resistance to a vector borne pathogen, the method comprising introducing at least one mutation into at least one RPN10 gene.

15. The method of any of claims 12 to 14, wherein the vector-borne pathogen is a bacteria, preferably a phytoplasma.

16. The method of any of claims 12 to 15, wherein the mutation is a loss of function mutation.

17. The method of any of claims 12 to 15, wherein the mutation is a mutation is in the N-terminal vWA (von Willebrand factor type A) domain of RPN10, wherein preferably the sequence of the vWA domain comprises or consists of SEQ ID NO:47 or a homologue or variant thereof.

18. The method of any of claims 12 to 17, wherein the mutation is at position 38 and 39 of SEQ ID NO: 18 or at a homologous position in a homologous sequence.

19. The method of any of claims 12 to 18, wherein the mutation is a substitution.

20. The method of any of claims 12 to 19, wherein the mutation is introduced using targeted genome editing.

21 . The method of any of claims 12 to 20, wherein the plant is a monocot or dicot.

22. The method of claim 21 , wherein the plant is selected from brassicas, legumes, cereals, citrus, root vegetables, tuber and rhizome crops, fruits including berries and soft fruits and fruit, nut and seed bearing trees.

23. A method for identifying and/or selecting a plant that will have increased resistance to phytoplasma infection, the method comprising detecting in the plant or plant germplasm at least one polymorphism in the RPN10 gene.

24. The method of claim 23, wherein preferably, the polymorphism prevents binding of a phytoplasma effector protein, wherein preferably the phytoplasma effector protein is SAP05.

25. The method of claims 23 or 24, wherein the mutation is in the N-terminal vWA (von Willebrand factor type A) domain of RPN10, wherein preferably the sequence of the vWA domain comprises or consists of SEQ ID NO: 47 or a homologue or variant thereof. The method of any of claims 23 to 25, wherein the mutation is at position 38 and 39 of SEQ ID NO: 18 or at a homologous position in a homologous sequence.