WO2022108586A1

WO2022108586A1 - Fuel cell catalyst materials

Info

Publication number: WO2022108586A1
Application number: PCT/US2020/061213
Authority: WO
Inventors: Soo Kim; Matthias HANAUER; Ulrich Berner; Ulrich Sauter; Nathan CRAIG; Christina Johnston; Charles Tuffile
Original assignee: Robert Bosch Gmbh
Priority date: 2020-11-19
Filing date: 2020-11-19
Publication date: 2022-05-27

Abstract

A fuel cell catalyst material includes a metal alloy. The metal alloy is a ternary alloy that has a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co.

Description

FUEL CELL CATALYST MATERIALS

TECHNICAL FIELD

[0001] The present disclosure relates to catalyst materials for fuel cells, for example, catalyst materials for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells.

BACKGROUND

[0002] Fuel cells have shown promise as an alternative power source for vehicles and other transportation applications. Fuel cells operate with a renewable energy carrier, such as hydrogen. Fuel cells also operate without toxic emissions or greenhouse gases. One of the current limitations of widespread adoption and use of this clean and sustainable technology is the relatively expensive cost of the fuel cell. A catalyst material (e.g. platinum catalyst) is included in the catalyst layer of both the anode and the cathode of a fuel cell. The catalyst material is one of the most expensive components in the fuel cell.

SUMMARY

[0003] According to one embodiment, a fuel cell catalyst material is disclosed. The fuel cell catalyst material may be a metal alloy. The metal alloy may be a ternary alloy that has a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co.

[0004] According to another embodiment, a fuel cell catalyst layer is disclosed. The fuel cell catalyst layer may include a catalyst support and a catalyst material. The catalyst material may be mixed with or coated onto the catalyst support. The catalyst material may be a ternary alloy that has a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co.

[0005] According to yet another embodiment, a fuel cell is disclosed. The fuel cell may include a membrane electrode assembly (MEA). The MEA may further include catalyst layers having a catalyst material supported by a catalyst support, respectively. The MEA may also include a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) situated between the catalyst layers. The MEA may further include gas diffusion layers (GDLs) separated from the PEM by the catalyst layers, respectively. In addition, the fuel cell may include flow field plates connected to the GDLs, respectively. The catalyst material may be a ternary alloy having a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0006] Figure 1 depicts a schematic side view of a PEM fuel cell.

[0007] Figure 2 depicts a schematic diagram of a computing platform that may be utilized to implement a data-driven materials screening method.

[0008] Figure 3 depicts a schematic phase diagram showing a reaction enthalpy (eV/atom) of a reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a function of a molar fraction of H2O2 in a reaction environment.

[0009] Figure 4 depicts a schematic perspective view of a fuel cell stack according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0010] Embodiments of the present disclosure are described herein. It is to be understood, however, that the disclosed embodiments are merely examples and other embodiments can take various and alternative forms. The figures are not necessarily to scale; some features could be exaggerated or minimized to show details of components. Therefore, specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but merely as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the embodiments. As those of ordinary skill in the art will understand, various features illustrated and described with reference to any one of the figures can be combined with features illustrated in one or more other figures to produce embodiments that are not explicitly illustrated or described. The combinations of features illustrated provide representative embodiments for typical applications. Various combinations and modifications of the features consistent with the teachings of this disclosure, however, could be desired for applications or implementations.

[0011] This present disclosure is not limited to the specific embodiments and methods described below, as specific components and/or conditions may, of course, vary. Furthermore, the terminology used herein is used only for the purpose of describing embodiments of the present disclosure and is not intended to be limiting in any way.

[0012] As used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular form “a,” “an,” and “the” comprise plural referents unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. For example, reference to a component in the singular is intended to comprise a plurality of components.

[0013] The description of a group or class of materials as suitable for a given purpose in connection with one or more embodiments implies that mixtures of any two or more of the members of the group or class are suitable. Description of constituents in chemical terms refers to the constituents at the time of addition to any combination specified in the description and does not necessarily preclude chemical interactions among constituents of the mixture once mixed.

[0014] Except where expressly indicated, all numerical quantities in this description indicating dimensions or material properties are to be understood as modified by the word "about" in describing the broadest scope of the present disclosure.

[0015] The first definition of an acronym or other abbreviation applies to all subsequent uses herein of the same abbreviation and applies mutatis mutandis to normal grammatical variations of the initially defined abbreviation. Unless expressly stated to the contrary, measurement of a property is determined by the same technique as previously or later referenced for the same property.

[0016] The term “substantially” may be used herein to describe disclosed or claimed embodiments The term “substantially” may modify any value or relative characteristic disclosed or claimed in the present disclosure. “Substantially” may signify that the value or relative characteristic it modifies is within ± 0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5% or 10% of the value or relative characteristic. [0017] Reference is being made in detail to compositions, embodiments, and methods of embodiments known to the inventors. However, disclosed embodiments are merely exemplary of the present disclosure which may be embodied in various and alternative forms. Therefore, specific details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, rather merely as representative bases for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the present disclosure

[0018] Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells show great potential as an alternative solution for energy production and consumption. Particularly, PEM fuel cells are being developed as electrical power sources for automobile applications. However, widespread adoption requires further research into lifetime and cost reduction for catalysts, such as platinum (Pt) catalysts, used in the PEM fuel cells.

[0019] A typical single PEM fuel cell is composed of a PEM, an anode layer, a cathode layer, and gas diffusion layers. These components form a membrane electrode assembly (MEA), which is surrounded by two flow field plates. Out of all the MEA components, the catalyst, which is found in both the anode and cathode layers, is commonly the most expensive constituent due to the necessity of using Pt at both the anode and cathode layers.

[0020] In a PEM fuel cell, Pt catalysts catalyze a hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR, H2 — > 2H⁺ + 2e’) at the anode layer, where H2 is oxidized to generate electrons and protons (H⁺). At the cathode layer, Pt catalysts catalyze an oxygen reduction reaction (ORR, I6O2 + 2H⁺ + 2e" — ► H2O), where O2 reacts with H⁺ and is reduced to form water. Due to dynamic changes of operational conditions in the PEM fuel cell, Pt catalysts may be subject to various degradations, including dissolution, migration, and re-deposition. In addition, because the kinetics of an ORR is significantly slower than that of an HOR, a higher loading of Pt catalysts is required at the cathode layer than the anode layer. Further, the sizes of Pt catalysts may grow during a normal operation of the PEM fuel cell. The growth of the Pt catalysts may cause a loss of an electrochemical surface area (ECSA), which adversely affects the HOR and/or the ORR and leads to the degradation of the PEM fuel cell.

[0021] Pt-cobalt (Co) bimetallic alloys have been studied as an alternative catalyst material for a PEM fuel cell. Incorporating Co with Pt may not only improve catalyst performance of the PEM fuel cell but also reduce the cost of fabricating the PEM fuel cell. However, metal leaching may occur when Co is exposed to an acidic environment in the PEM fuel cell, which may lead to catalyst degradation in the PEM fuel cell.

[0022] Therefore, there is a need to minimize Pt catalysts degradation while maintaining the performance and durability of the PEM fuel cell. Aspects of the present disclosure are directed to metal alloys that may be used as a catalyst material in a PEM fuel cell, for example, ternary alloys with a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co. Aspects of the present disclosure are also directed to a catalyst layer of a PEM fuel cell, where the catalyst layer includes a catalyst material made of ternary alloys with a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co. Further, aspects of the present disclosure are directed to a fuel cell having a membrane electrode assembly (MEA), where the MEA includes a catalyst material made of ternary alloys with a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co.

[0023] Figure 1 depicts a schematic side view of a PEM fuel cell. The PEM fuel cell 10 can be stacked to create a fuel cell stack assembly. The PEM fuel cell 10 includes a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) 12, an anode layer 14, a cathode layer 16, an anode gas diffusion layer (GDL) 18, and a cathode GDL 20. The PEM 12 is situated between the anode layer 14 and the cathode layer 16. The anode layer 14 is situated between the anode GDL 18 and the PEM 12, and the cathode layer 16 is situated between the cathode GDL 20 and the PEM 12. Further, the PEM 12, the anode 14, the cathode 16, and the anode and cathode GDLs 18 and 20 comprise a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) 22. A catalyst material is included in the anode layer 14 and the cathode layer 16. The catalyst material is supported on a catalyst support.

[0024] In addition, a first side 24 of the MEA 22 is bound by an anode flow field plate 28, and the second side 26 of the MEA 22 is bounded by a cathode flow field plate 30. The anode flow field plate 28 includes an anode flow field 32 configured to distribute H2 to the MEA 22. The cathode flow field plate 30 includes a cathode flow field 34 configured to distribute O2 to the MEA 22. [0025] Figure 2 depicts a schematic diagram of a computing platform that may be utilized to implement a data-driven materials screening method. The computing platform 50 may include a processor 52, a memory 54, and a non-volatile storage 56. The processor 52 may include one or more devices selected from high-performance computing (HPC) systems including high- performance cores, microprocessors, micro-controllers, digital signal processors, microcomputers, central processing units, field programmable gate arrays, programmable logic devices, state machines, logic circuits, analog circuits, digital circuits, or any other devices that manipulate signals (analog or digital) based on computer-executable instructions residing in memory The memory 54 may include a single memory device or a number of memory devices including random access memory (RAM), volatile memory, non-volatile memory, static random-access memory (SRAM), dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), flash memory, cache memory, or any other device capable of storing information. The non-volatile storage 56 may include one or more persistent data storage devices such as a hard drive, optical drive, tape drive, non-volatile solid-state device, cloud storage or any other device capable of persistently storing information.

[0026] The processor 52 may be configured to read into memory and execute computerexecutable instructions residing in a DFT software module 58 of the non-volatile storage 56 and embodying DFT slab model algorithms, calculations and/or methodologies of one or more embodiments. The DFT software module 58 may include operating systems and applications. The DFT software module 58 may be compiled or interpreted from computer programs created using a variety of programming languages and/or technologies, including, without limitation, and either alone or in combination, Java, C, C++, C#, Objective C, Fortran, Pascal, Java Script, Python, Perl, and PL/SQL.

[0027] Upon execution by the processor 52, the computer-executable instructions of the DFT software module 58 may cause the computing platform 50 to implement one or more of the DFT algorithms and/or methodologies disclosed herein. The non-volatile storage 56 may also include DFT data 60 supporting the functions, features, calculations, and processes of the one or more embodiments described herein.

[0028] The program code embodying the algorithms and/or methodologies described herein is capable of being individually or collectively distributed as a program product in a variety of different forms. The program code may be distributed using a computer readable storage medium having computer readable program instructions thereon for causing a processor to carry out aspects of one or more embodiments. The computer readable storage medium, which is inherently non- transitory, may include volatile and non-volatile, and removable and non-removable tangible media implemented in any method or technology for storage of information, such as computer-readable instructions, data structures, program modules, or other data. The computer readable storage media may further include RAM, ROM, erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), flash memory or other solid state memory technology, portable compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), or other optical storage, magnetic cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium that can be used to store the desired information and which can be read by a computer. Computer readable program instructions may be downloaded to a computer, another type of programmable data processing apparatus, or another device from a computer readable storage medium or to an external computer or external storage device via a network.

[0029] Computer readable program instructions stored in the computer readable medium may be used to direct a computer, other types of programmable data processing apparatus, or other devices to function in a particular manner, such that the instructions stored in the computer readable medium produce an article of manufacture including instructions that implement the functions, acts, and/or operations specified in the flowcharts or diagrams. In certain alternative embodiments, the functions, acts, and/or operations specified in the flowcharts and diagrams may be re-ordered, processed serially, and/or processed concurrently consistent with one or more embodiments. Moreover, any of the flowcharts and/or diagrams may include more or fewer nodes or blocks than those illustrated consistent with one or more embodiments.

[0030] Referring to Figure 2, the data-driven materials screening method may be utilized to screen metal alloys that are suitable to be used as catalyst materials in a PEM fuel cell. Particularly, the data-driven materials screening method may evaluate metal alloys in the following aspects, for example, (1) the thermodynamic stability of a metal alloy; (2) the chemical reactivity of a metal alloy under an oxidizing or reducing environment; (3) the chemical resistance of a metal alloy against corrosive species in the PEM fuel cell; and (4) the resistance of a metal alloy against carbon corrosion or poisoning. [0031] The metal alloys may be ternary alloys with a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co. In some embodiments, M may be aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), scandium (Sc), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), gallium (Ga), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), yttrium (Y), zirconium (Zr), niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh), palladium (Pd), silver (Ag), cadmium (Cd), indium (In), tin (Sn), antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te), hafnium (Hf), tantalum (Ta), tungsten (W), rhenium (Re), osmium (Os), iridium (Ir), gold (Au), thallium (Tl), lead (Pb), and bismuth (Bi).

[0032] To better understand the properties of the ternary alloys, the data-driven materials screening method is first used to examine the properties of Pt-Co alloys, for example, Pto.sCotu. The properties of the Pt-Co alloys may then be used as references to compare with ternary alloys to identify ternary alloys that may have similar or better properties than the Pt-Co alloys.

[0033] Figure 3 depicts a schematic phase diagram showing a reaction enthalpy (eV/atom) of a reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a function of a molar fraction of H2O2 in a reaction environment. H2O2 is used as a proxy to describe H2O + O or 2OH^{- i}n a realistic PEM fuel cell environment, indicating an oxidizing environment. The molar faction of H2O2 is in a range of 0 and 1. As shown in Figure 3, when the molar faction of H2O2 is 0, there is no H2O2 and 100% of Pto.8Coo.2 in the reaction environment. Conversely, when the molar faction of H2O2 is 1, there is no Pto.8Coo.2 and 100% H2O2 in the reaction environment. As the molar fraction of H2O2 increases from 0, a first stable decomposition reaction occurs at point A, where the molar fraction of H2O2 is about 0.167 and the reaction enthalpy of the first stable decomposition reaction is about -0.306 eV/atom. The first stable decomposition reaction occurs when there is a dilute amount of H2O2 in the reaction environment. Reaction (1) is expressed below to illustrate the first stable decomposition reaction:

O.167H2O2 + 0.833Coo.₂Pto.8 0.167CoO + 0.167H₂O + 0.667Pt (1)

[0034] According to reaction (1), after reacting with the dilute amount of H2O2, Pto.8Coo.2 is turned into CoO and Pt. Because CoO may leach out when exposed to the acidic environment in a PEM fuel cell, CoO, or Co²⁺(aq.) may be less likely to be reduced back to become an active catalyst. Therefore, the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after reaction (1) is 0.667/0.833, which is about 80. 1%.

[0035] Still referring to Figure 3, as the molar fraction of H2O2 keeps increasing, a most stable decomposition reaction may occur at point B, where the molar fraction of H2O2 is about 0.595 and the reaction enthalpy of the most stable decomposition reaction is about -0.428 eV/atom. The most stable decomposition reaction occurs when there is an abundant amount of H2O2 in the reaction environment. Reaction (2) is included hereby to illustrate the most stable decomposition reaction:

0.595H2O2 + 0.405Coo.2Pto.8 -> 0.081Co(PtO₂)3 + 0.027Pt₃0₄ + 0.595H₂O (2)

[0036] According to reaction (2), after reacting with the abundant amount of H2O2, Pto.8Coo 2 is turned into Co(PtO2)₃ and Pt-01. Both Co(PtO2)₃ and Pt₃01 may be reduced back to become an active catalyst. Therefore, the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after reaction (2) is (0.081 *(1+3) + 0.027*3)/0.405, which is 100%.

[0037] Apart from the reactions with H2O2, Pto.8Coo.2 may also react with other species commonly present in the environment of a PEM fuel cell. Some of these species may include hydronium ion (H₃O⁺), hydrogen fluoride (HF), sulfur trioxide (SO₃), and carbon monoxide (CO). As such, the data-driven materials screening method may be used to study the behavior of Pto.8Coo.2 when reacting to each of these species. In any scenario, there may be a first stable decomposition reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and one of the species, which occurs when the concentration of the species is dilute in the environment. In addition, in any scenario, there may be a most stable decomposition reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and one of the species, which occurs when the concentration of the species is abundant in the environment. Further, the reaction enthalpy of each reaction, if possible, and the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials may be calculated using the data-driven materials screening method.

[0038] Table 1 depicts information of a first stable decomposition reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and H₃O⁺, H2O2, HF, SO₃, or CO, respectively. Particularly, Table 1 provides a reaction equation, if possible, of the first stable decomposition reaction, a percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, and a reaction enthalpy of each reaction. Table 1. Information of a first stable decomposition reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and HiOf H2O2, HF, SO3, or CO, respectively.

[0039] Table 2 depicts information of a most stable decomposition reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and HsO⁺, H2O2, HF, SO3, or CO, respectively. Particularly, Table 2 provides a reaction equation, if possible, of the most stable decomposition reaction, a percentage of remaining catalystlike materials, and a reaction enthalpy of each reaction.

Table 2. Information of the most stable decomposition reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and HsO⁺, H2O2, HF, SO3, or CO, respectively.

[0040] Now, a process for screening the ternary alloys with a chemical formula PtxCoyMz is described, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co. Specifically, the present disclosure describes a process for screening ternary alloys with a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, y = 0.15, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M may be Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. It is noted that other ternary alloys having the chemical formula PtxCoyMz (e.g. where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.15 and 0.15 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co) may also be evaluated using the same or substantially the same screening process

[0041] Using the data-driven materials screening method, each ternary alloy is evaluated in terms of, for example, (1) the thermodynamic stability of the ternary alloy; (2) the chemical reactivity of the ternary alloy under an oxidizing or reducing environment; (3) the chemical resistance of the ternary alloy against corrosive species in the PEM fuel cell; and (4) the resistance of the ternary alloy against carbon corrosion or poisoning. Afterwards, the properties of each ternary alloy are compared with those of Pto.8Coo.2 to identify suitable ternary alloys that may be used as catalyst materials for a PEM fuel cell.

[0042] The present disclosure mainly describes the screening results related to ternary alloys having 15 atomic percent Co, for example, Pto.soCoo.isMo.os, Pto.75Coo.15Mo.10, Pto.70Coo.15Mo.15, Pt0.65Co0.15M0.20, Pt0.60Co0.15M0.25, and Pt0.50Co0.15M0.35, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Ternary alloys having more than or less than 15 atomic percent Co may also be evaluated by the data-driven materials screening method to identify suitable catalyst materials for a PEM fuel cell.

[0043] Table 3 depicts information of thermodynamic decomposition of Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Specifically, Table 3 provides the products of thermodynamic decomposition of each ternary alloy. Table 3 also sorts the products based on a structural property of a product (i.e. cubic or non-cubic) and provides a percentage of the non-cubic structures among the products for each ternary alloy. As shown in Table 3, some non- cubic structures may include tetragonal (Tet), orthorhombic (Orth), trigonal (Tri), hexagonal (Hex), and monoclinic (Mon) structures. The percentage of non-cubic structures in the products may indicate a tendency of a structural phase transition for each ternary alloy. For example, for Pt0.80Co0.15Al0.05, the products of thermodynamic decomposition are CoPt3, AlPt3, and Pt. Among these products, Pt and CoPts are cubic structures, and AlPts is a non-cubic structure. As such, the percentage of the non-cubic structures is 0.05/(0.15 + 0.05 + 0.2), which is 12.5%.

[0044] Moreover, Table 3 provides a penalty point (PP) for the tendency of the structural phase transition of each ternary alloy. For ease of comparison, every 10% of non-cubic structures in the products of each reaction is represented by one PP (i.e. PP = 1). As such, for Pto.80Coo.15Alo.o5, because the percentage of the non-cubic structures is 12.5%, the PP for this ternary alloy is 1.25.

Table 3. Information of thermodynamic decomposition of Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti,

V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta,

W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi.

[0045] To evaluate the percentage of cubic or non-cubic structures in the products of thermodynamic decomposition of a ternary alloy, X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques may be employed. Particularly, a cubic phase may contain strong signatures of (111), (110), and (100) peaks, representing a face-centered cubic (fee) character. On the other hand, a non-cubic phase may exhibit a small impurity peak, which can be differentiated from the cubic phase. In addition, the XRD techniques may be used to determine an average crystallite size of a ternary alloy nanoparticle. A size distribution of ternary alloy nanoparticles may further be determined using high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HR-TEM) imaging techniques. An average size of a ternary alloy nanoparticle may be in a range of 1 and 200 nm, preferably between 3 and 10 nm.

[0046] In addition to the composition of a ternary alloy catalyst, the properties of the ternary alloy catalyst may also vary depending on its microstructure, morphology, and/or crystallinity. A lattice mismatch between the decomposed products may impact a local structure and/or electronic structure of the catalyst. When catalyst nanoparticles are de-alloyed near a surface, a lattice constant in a bulk region may decrease, thereby leading to a compressive strain at an outer Pt surface. In general, such an effect may increase the catalyst activity. Further, introducing tensile strain and/or increasing lattice constants may enhance the durability of a catalyst. For example, if the lattice parameter of a catalyst is smaller than that of pure Pt (i.e. 3.98 Å), the catalyst may have an enhanced catalyst performance compared to pure Pt. Referring to Fable 3, the decomposed products, such as, CrPt₃ (3.92 Å), MnPts (3.94 Å), NiPt3 (3.88 Å), CuPt₇ (3.94 Å), ZnPt₃ (3.94 Å), and SnPts (4.07 Å), all have a smaller lattice parameter than pure Pt. Therefore, it may be expected that a ternary alloy catalyst having Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, or Sn may have an enhanced catalyst performance when compared to pure Pt.

[0047] Table 4 depicts information of a first stable decomposition reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 and a dilute amount of H₃O⁺, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Particularly, Table 4 provides a reaction equation, if possible, of the first stable decomposition of each ternary alloy, a percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, and a reaction enthalpy of each reaction.

[0048] As to the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials in each reaction, products, such as Co(PtO₂)₃ and Pt₃O4, may be counted as catalyst-like materials because they are more likely to be reduced back to become an active catalyst. However, products, such as transition metal oxides (e.g. CoO), any sulfides (e g. PtS), and any sulfates (e.g. CoSCU), may not be counted as catalyst-like materials because they are less likely to be reduced back to become an active catalyst. Table 4 further provides a penalty point (e.g. PPI) regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after each ternary alloy reacts with the dilute amount of H₃O⁺ as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. [0049] As to the reaction enthalpy of each reaction, Table 4 provides another penalty point (e.g. PP2) regarding the reaction enthalpy of each reaction between the ternary alloy and the dilute amount of HaO⁴ as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. As shown in Table 4, among all the ternary alloys, only Pto.soCoo.isPdo.os appears to react with H3CC. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.soCoo.isPdo.os and HsO⁺ is assigned as 1.00, while the penalty points of the other reactions are assigned as 0.00.

Table 4. Information of a first stable decomposition reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 and H3CC, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi.

[0050] Table 5 depicts information of a most stable decomposition reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 and an abundant amount of HsO⁺, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Particularly, Table 5 provides a reaction equation, if possible, of the most stable decomposition of each ternary alloy, a percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, and a reaction enthalpy of each reaction. Table 5 also provides a penalty point (e g. PP3) regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after each ternary alloy reacts with the abundant amount of H/CF as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In addition, Table 5 provides another penalty point (e.g. PP4) regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between each ternary alloy and the abundant amount of HsO⁺ as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. As shown in Table 5, among all the ternary alloys, only Pt0.80Co0.15Pd0.05 appears to react with ThCF. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.soCoo.isPdo.os and FFCT is assigned as 1.00, while the penalty points of the other reactions are assigned as 0.00.

Table 5. Information of a most stable decomposition reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 and H3CC, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi.

[0051] Table 6 depicts information of a first stable decomposition reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 and H2O2, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Particularly, Table 6 provides a reaction equation, if possible, of the first stable decomposition of each ternary alloy, a percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, and a reaction enthalpy of each reaction. [0052] As to the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, Table 6 provides a penalty point (e.g. PP5) regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after each ternary alloy reacts with a dilute amount of H2O2 as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials for Pto.8Coo.2 (i.e. when the molar fraction of H2O2 is about 0.167, and the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 80.1%, as listed in Table 1) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP5 for each reaction in Table 6, simply divide the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the dilute amount of H2O2 by the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials of each reaction in Table 5. For example, after the reaction between Pto.80Coo.15Alo.o5 and a dilute amount of H2O2, the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 95.3%, and therefore, PP5 = 0.801/0.953, which is about 0.84.

[0053] As to the reaction enthalpy of each reaction, Table 5 provides a penalty point (e.g. PP6) regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between each ternary alloy and the dilute amount of H2O2 as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.8Coo 2 and the dilute amount of H2O2 (i.e. when the molar fraction of H2O2 is about 0.167, and the reaction enthalpy of the reaction is about -0.306 eV/atom, as listed in Table 1) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP6 for each reaction in Table 6, simply divide the reaction enthalpy of each reaction in Table 5 by that of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the dilute amount of H2O2. For example, the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.80Coo.15Alo.o5 and a dilute amount of H2O2 is -0.247 eV/atom, and therefore, PP6 = -0.247/-0.306, which is about 0.81.

Table 6. Information of a first stable decomposition reaction between Pto.soCoo.isMo.os and H2O2, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi.

[0054] Table 7 depicts information of a most stable decomposition reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 and H2O2, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Particularly, Table 7 provides a reaction equation, if possible, of the most stable decomposition of each ternary alloy, a percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, and a reaction enthalpy of each reaction.

[0055] As to the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, Table 7 provides a penalty point (e.g. PP7) regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after each ternary alloy reacts with an abundant amount of H2O2 as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials for Pto.8Coo.2 (i.e. when the molar fraction of H2O2 is about 0.595, and the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 100.0%, as listed in Table 2) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP7 for each reaction in Table 7, simply divide the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2and the abundant amount of H2O2 by the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials of each reaction in Table 7. For example, after the reaction between Pto.80Coo.15Alo.o5 and an abundant amount of H2O2, the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 94.6%, and therefore, PP7 = 1/0.946, which is about 1.06.

[0056] As to the reaction enthalpy of each reaction, Table 7 provides a penalty point (e.g. PP8) regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between each ternary alloy and an abundant amount of H2O2 as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the abundant amount of H2O2 (i.e. when the molar fraction of H2O2 is about 0.595, and the reaction enthalpy of the reaction is about -0.428 eV/atom, as listed in Table 2) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP8 for each reaction in Table 6, simply divide the reaction enthalpy of each reaction in Table 7 by that of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2and H2O2. For example, the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15Al0.05 and an abundant amount of H2O2 is -0.445 eV/atom, and therefore, PP8 = -0.445/-0.428, which is about 1.04.

Table 7. Information of a most stable decomposition reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 and H2O2, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag,

Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi.

[0057] Table 8 depicts information of a first stable decomposition reaction between Pto.soCoo.isMo.os and HF, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Particularly, Table 8 provides a reaction equation, if possible, of the first stable decomposition of each ternary alloy, a percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, and a reaction enthalpy of each reaction. [0058] As to the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, Table 8 provides a penalty point (e.g. PP9) regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after each ternary alloy reacts with a dilute amount of HF as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials for Pto.8Coo.2 (i.e. when a molar fraction of HF is about 0.545, and the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 80.0%, as listed in Table 1) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP9 for each reaction in Table 8, simply divide the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and a dilute amount of HF by the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials in each reaction in Table 8. For example, after the reaction between Pto.80Coo.15Alo.o5 and a dilute amount of HF, the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 94.7%, and therefore, PP9 = 0.800/0.947, which is about 0 84.

[0059] As to the reaction enthalpy of each reaction, Table 8 provides a penalty point (e.g. PP10) regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between each ternary alloy and the dilute amount of HF as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto 8Coo 2 and the dilute amount of HF (i.e. when the molar fraction of HF is about 0.545, and the reaction enthalpy of the reaction is about -0.019 eV/atom, as listed in Table 1) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP10 for each reaction in Table 8, simply divide the reaction enthalpy of each reaction in Table 8 by that of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the dilute amount of HF. For example, the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.8oCoo.isAlo.os and a dilute amount of HF is -0.080 eV/atom, and therefore, PP10 = -0.080/-0.019, which is about 4.21.

Table 8. Information of a first stable decomposition reaction between Pto.soCoo.isMo.os and HF, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi.

[0060] Table 9 depicts information of a most stable decomposition reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 and HF, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Particularly, Table 9 provides a reaction equation, if possible, of the most stable decomposition of each ternary alloy, a percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, and a reaction enthalpy of each reaction.

[0061] As to the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, Table 9 provides a penalty point (e.g. PP11) regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after each ternary alloy reacts with an abundant amount of HF as compared to that for Pto.8Coo .2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials for Pto.8Coo.2 (i.e. when the molar fraction of HF is about 0.545, and the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 80.0%, as listed in Table 2) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP11 for each reaction in Table 9, simply divide the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the abundant amount of HF by the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials of each reaction in Table 9. For example, after the reaction between Pto.80Coo.15Alo.o5 and an abundant amount of HF, the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 94.7%, and therefore, PPI 1 = 0.800/0.947, which is about 0.84.

[0062] As to the reaction enthalpy of each reaction, Table 9 provides a penalty point (e.g. PPI 2) regarding the reaction enthalpy of each reaction between the ternary alloy and the abundant amount of HF as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the abundant amount of HF (i.e. when the molar fraction of HF is about 0.545, and the reaction enthalpy of the reaction is about -0.019 eV/atom, as listed in Table 2) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP12 for each reaction in Table 9, simply divide the reaction enthalpy of each reaction in Table 9 by that of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the abundant amount of HF. For example, the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15Al0.05 and an abundant amount of HF is -0.080 eV/atom, and therefore, PP12 = - 0.080/-0.019, which is about 4.21.

Table 9. Information of a most stable decomposition reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 and HF, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi.

[0063] Table 10 depicts information of a first stable decomposition reaction between Pto.soCoo.isMo.os and of SO3, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Particularly, Table 10 provides a reaction equation, if possible, of the first stable decomposition of each ternary alloy, a percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, and a reaction enthalpy of each reaction. [0064] As to the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, Table 10 provides a penalty point (e.g. PP13) regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after each ternary alloy reacts with a dilute amount of SO3 as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials for Pto.8Coo.2 (i.e. when the molar fraction of SO3 is about 0.062, and the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 73.3%, as listed in Table 1) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP13 for each reaction in Table 10, simply divide the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the dilute amount of SO3 by the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials of each reaction in Table 10. For example, after the reaction between Pto.80Coo.15Alo.o5 and a dilute amount of SO3, the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 92.3%, and therefore, PP13 = 0.733/0.923, which is about 0.79.

[0065] As to the reaction enthalpy of each reaction, Table 10 provides a penalty point (e.g. PPI 4) regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between each ternary alloy and the dilute amount of SO3 as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the dilute amount of SO3 (i.e. when the molar fraction of SO3 is about 0.062, and the reaction enthalpy of the reaction is about -0.088 eV/atom, as listed in Table 1) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP14 for each reaction in Table 10, simply divide the reaction enthalpy of each reaction in Table 10 by that of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the dilute amount SO3. For example, the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.80Coo.15Alo.o5 and a dilute amount of SO3 is -0.138 eV/atom, and therefore, PP14 = -0.138/-0.088, which is about 1.57.

Table 10. Information of a first stable decomposition reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 and SO3, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi.

[0066] Table 11 depicts information of a most stable decomposition reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 and SO3, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Particularly, Table 11 provides a reaction equation, if possible, of the most stable decomposition of each ternary alloy, a percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, and a reaction enthalpy of each reaction.

[0067] As to the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, Table 11 provides a penalty point (e.g. PPI 5) regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after each ternary alloy reacts with an abundant amount of SO3 as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials for Pto.8Coo.2 (i.e. when the molar fraction of SO3 is about 0.211, and the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 73.4%, as listed in Table 2) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PPI 5 for each reaction in Table 11, simply divide the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the abundant amount of SO3 by the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials in each reaction in Table 11. For example, after the reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15Al0.05 and an abundant amount of SO3, the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 72.6%, and therefore, PPI 5 = 0.734/0.726, which is about 1.01.

[0068] As to the reaction enthalpy of each reaction, Table 11 provides a penalty point (e.g. PP16) regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between each ternary alloy and SO3 as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the abundant amount of SO3 (i.e. when the molar fraction of SO3 is about 0.211, and the reaction enthalpy of the reaction is about -0.207 eV/atom, as listed in Table 2) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP16 for each reaction in Table 11, simply divide the reaction enthalpy of each reaction in Table 11 by that of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the abundant amount of SCh. For example, the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.80Coo.15Alo.o5 and an abundant amount of SO3 is -0.256 eV/atom, and therefore, PPI 6 = -0.256/-0.207, which is about 1.24.

Table 11. Information of a most stable decomposition reaction between Pto.soCoo.isMo.os and SO3, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi.

[0069] Table 12 depicts information of a first stable decomposition reaction between Pto.soCoo.isMo.os and CO, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Particularly, Table 12 provides a reaction equation, if possible, of the first stable decomposition of each ternary alloy, a percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, and a reaction enthalpy of each reaction. [0070] As to the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, Table 12 provides a penalty point (e.g. PP17) regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after each ternary alloy reacts with a dilute amount of CO as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials for Pto.8Coo.2 (i.e. when the molar fraction of CO is about 0.375, and the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 80.0%, as listed in Table 1) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP17 for each reaction in Table 12, simply divide the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the dilute amount of CO by the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials of each reaction in Table 12. For example, after the reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15Al0.05 and a dilute amount of CO, the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 95.3%, and therefore, PP17 = 0.800/0.953, which is about 0.84.

[0071] As to the reaction enthalpy of each reaction, Table 12 provides a penalty point (e.g. PPI 8) regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between each ternary alloy and the dilute amount of CO as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.8Coo 2 and the dilute amount of CO (i.e. when the molar fraction of CO is about 0.375, and the reaction enthalpy of the reaction is about -0.323 eV/atom) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP18 for each reaction in Table 12, simply divide the reaction enthalpy of each reaction in Table 12 by that of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the dilute amount of CO. For example, the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.80Coo.15Alo.o5 and a dilute amount of CO is -0.151 eV/atom, and therefore, PP14 = -0.151/-0.323, which is about 0.47.

Table 12. Information of a first stable decomposition reaction between Pto.soCoo.isMo 05 and CO, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi.

[0072] Table 13 depicts information of a most stable decomposition reaction between Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 and CO, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Particularly, Table 13 provides a reaction equation, if possible, of the most stable decomposition of each ternary alloy, a percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, and a reaction enthalpy of each reaction.

[0073] As to the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials, Table 13 provides a penalty point (e.g. PP19) regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after each ternary alloy reacts with an abundant amount of CO as compared to that for Pto.xCoo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials for Pto.8Coo.2 (i.e. when the molar fraction of CO is about 0.375, and the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 80.0%, as listed in Table 2) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP19 for each reaction in Table 13, simply divide the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials after the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the abundant amount of CO by the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials of each reaction in Table 13. For example, after the reaction between Pto.80Coo.15Alo.o5 and an abundant amount of CO, the percentage of remaining catalyst-like materials is about 80.0%, and therefore, PP19 = 0.800/0.800, which is about 1.00.

[0074] As to the reaction enthalpy of each reaction, Table 13 provides a penalty point (e.g. PP20) regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between each ternary alloy and the abundant amount of CO as compared to that for Pto.8Coo.2. In this scenario, the penalty point regarding the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the abundant amount of CO (i.e. when the molar fraction of CO is about 0.375, and the reaction enthalpy of the reaction is about -0.323 eV/atom, as listed in Table 2) is assigned as 1.00. To calculate a PP20 for each reaction in Table 13, simply divide the reaction enthalpy of each reaction in Table 13 by that of the reaction between Pto.8Coo.2 and the abundant amount of CO. For example, the reaction enthalpy of the reaction between Pto.80Coo.15Alo.o5 and an abundant amount of CO is -0.345 eV/atom, and therefore, PP20 = - 0.345/-0.323, which is about 1.07.

Table 13. Information of a most stable decomposition reaction between Pto.soCoo.isMo.os and CO, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi.

[0075] Table 14 depicts a summary of the information described in Tables 4 to 13. Particularly, Table 14 provides a sum of penalty points (£PP) of the reactions between each ternary alloy Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05 (where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi) and H₃O⁺, H2O2, HF, SO3, or CO, respectively. Table 14 also provides the molecular weight (MW) of each ternary alloy and a sum of penalty points of each ternary alloy per MW (£PP per MW). To compare, Table 14 provides a sum of penalty points of the reactions between Pto.8Coo.2 and HsO⁺, H2O2, HF, SO3, or CO, respectively; the MW of Pto.8Coo 2; and a sum of penalty points of Pto.8Coo.2 per MW. Further, Table 14 provides a percentage of improvement of each ternary alloy when compared to Pto.8Coo.2 based on the ΣPP per MW.

Table 14. A summary of the information described in Tables 4 to 13.

[0076] According to the percentage of improvement of each ternary alloy when compared to Pto.8Coo 2 provided in Table 14, and taking the cost of a ternary alloy catalyst into consideration, there are three groups of ternary alloys that may not only provide similar or better catalyst performance than Pto.8Coo.2 but may also be economically practical. The first group of these catalysts may include M elements of Mn, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr, Sn, Mo, V, Fe, or Te, respectively, and these M elements are generally cheaper than Co. The second group of these catalysts may include M elements of In, Re, Ag, Ru, or Ga, respectively, and these M elements are generally more expensive than Co but less expensive than Pt. The third group of these catalysts may include M elements of Sb, Ti, W, and Nb, and ternary catalysts having these M elements may offer about 90 to 99% overall catalyst performance when compared to Pto.8Coo.2. [0077] Besides these three groups of catalysts, there are some more expensive M elements listed in Table 14 which may also be incorporated with Pt and Co to form ternary alloy catalysts for a PEM fuel cell. These M elements may include Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os. According to Table 14, ternary alloy catalysts having these M elements may also provide better catalyst performance when compared to Pto.8Coo.2.

[0078] Using the same screening process as for Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05, the data-driven materials screening method may further be used to evaluate other ternary alloys to identify suitable catalyst materials for a PEM fuel cell. These ternary alloys may include Pt0.75Co0.15M0.10, Pt0.70Co0.15M0.15, Pt065Co0 15M020, Pt060Co0 15M025, and Pt050Co0 15M035, where M = Al, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Tl, Pb, and Bi. Each of these ternary alloys has an increased concentration of M than Pt080Co0 15M005. Each of these ternary catalysts may be evaluated in terms of, for example, (1) the thermodynamic stability of the ternary alloy, (2) the chemical reactivity of the ternary alloy under an oxidizing or reducing environment, (3) the chemical resistance of the ternary alloy against corrosive species in the PEM fuel cell, and (4) the resistance of the ternary alloy against carbon corrosion or poisoning. Afterwards, penalty points for each ternary alloy are calculated, and the properties of each ternary alloy are compared with those of a corresponding Pt-Co alloy. For example, for ternary alloys Pto.75Coo.15Mo 10, the properties of Pt0.75Co0.15M0.10 are compared with those of Pto.75Coo.25. For ternary alloys Pt0.70Co0.15M0.15, the properties of Pt0.70Co0.15M0.15 are compared with those of Pt0.70Co0.30. For ternary alloys Pt0.65Co0.15M0.20, the properties of Pt0.65Co0.15M0.20 are compared with those of Pto.65Coo.35. For ternary alloys Pt0.60Co0.15M0.25, the properties of Pt0.60Co0.15M0.25 are compared with those of Pt0.60Co0.40. For ternary alloys Pt0.50Co0.15M0.35, the properties of Pt0.50Co0.15M0.35 are compared with those of Pt0.50Co0.50.

[0079] Table 15 provides a summary of exemplary candidates of ternary alloys that may provide better catalyst performance when compared to Pt-Co alloys. Specifically, Table 15 provides the molecular weight (MW) of each ternary alloy and a sum of penalty points of each ternary alloy per MW (VPP per MW). Table 15 also provides a percentage of improvement of each ternary alloy when compared to a Pt-Co alloy based on the £PP per MW. Table 15. A summary of exemplary candidates of other ternary catalysts that may provide better catalyst performance when compared to Pt-Co alloys.

[0080] In view of the foregoing, ternary alloys with a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, and 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, that may be suitable to be used as catalyst materials in a PEM fuel cell may include: (1) Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05, where M may be Mn, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr, Sn, Mo, V, Fe, Te, In, Re, Ag, Ru, Ga, Sb, Ti, W, Nb, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os; (2) Pto.75Coo.15Mo.10, where M may be Zn, Ni, Sn, Mn, Te, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os; (3) Pt0.70Co0.15M0.15, where M may be Zn, Sn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os; (4) Pt0.65Co0.15M0.20, where M may be Zn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os; (5) Pt0.60Co0.15M0.25, where M may be Zn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os; or (6) Pt0.50Co0.15M0.35, where M may be Zn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os.

[0081] To synthesize a ternary alloy catalyst as described above, Pt and Co precursors may be annealed with a stoichiometric amount of a third metal element precursor under a reducing heat treatment condition (e.g. under a nitrogen (N2), argon (Ar), or hydrogen (H2) gas atmosphere). Depending on the ternary alloy, a heat treatment temperature may be in a range of 150 and 1,000 °C, and a heat treatment time may be in a range of 30 seconds and 24 hours.

[0082] The loss of ECSA of a ternary alloy catalyst may be determined using a potentiostat with either a triangular or square wave having a voltage up to 0.9 V. In some embodiments, to understand catalyst degradation induced by carbon corrosion, the voltage may be further up to 1.5 V. When determining the loss of ECSA of the ternary alloy catalyst, H2 may be used to measure an amount of the adsorbed or desorbed gas. For a more accurate determination of the loss of ECSA, a carbon monoxide stripping method may be utilized.

[0083] In addition, mass activity measurements of the ternary alloy catalyst may be performed in a rotating disk electrode (RDE) or using a full membrane-electrode-assembly (MEA) setup under H2 or O2 atmosphere.

[0084] Referring back to Figure 1, a catalyst material made of a ternary alloy catalyst may be included in the anode layer 14 and/or the cathode layer 16. The ternary alloy catalyst has a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co. In a first embodiment, the ternary alloy catalyst is Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05, where M may be Mn, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr, Sn, Mo, V, Fe, Te, In, Re, Ag, Ru, Ga, Sb, Ti, W, Nb, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os. In a second embodiment, the ternary alloy catalyst is Pto.75Coo.15Mo 10, where M may be Zn, Ni, Sn, Mn, Te, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os. In a third embodiment, the ternary alloy catalyst is Pt0.70Co0.15M0.15, where M may be Zn, Sn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os. In a fourth embodiment, the ternary alloy catalyst is Pt0.65Co0.15M0.20, where M may be Zn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os. In a fifth embodiment, the ternary alloy catalyst is Pt0.60Co0.15M0.25, where M may be Zn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os. In a sixth embodiment, the ternary alloy catalyst is Pt0.50Co0.15M0.35, where M may be Zn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os.

[0085] Still referring to Figure 1, the ternary alloy catalyst is supported on a catalyst support. For example, the ternary alloy catalyst may be mixed with the catalyst support. Alternatively, the ternary alloy catalyst may be coated onto the catalyst support. The catalyst support may be carbon black, fibrous carbon, graphite, graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, defective graphene, defected graphite, graphyne, titanium oxide (TiO, Ti20-, or TiO2), tin oxide (SnO or SnCh), molybdenum oxide (MoOx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3), niobium oxide (NbrOs), magnesium titanium oxide (MgTi2Os-x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 5), or titanium-tin oxide (TiSnOx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4).

[0086] Individual PEM fuel cells can be assembled into a fuel cell stack. Each fuel cell in the stack is sandwiched between two flow field plates which separate the fuel cell from neighboring fuel cells. In a fuel cell stack, cell voltages of individual fuel cells may be different depending on the location of each fuel cell in the fuel cell stack. Different cell voltages may induce different degradations upon the catalyst performance in each fuel cell. For example, fuel cells that are positioned near a reactant inlet of the fuel cell stack may degrade faster than the ones positioned in a middle area of the fuel cell stack. Therefore, to improve the performance and durability of a fuel cell stack, catalyst materials of a PEM fuel cell may be varied based on its location in the fuel cell stack.

[0087] Figure 4 depicts a schematic perspective view of a fuel cell stack according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. The fuel cell stack 70 may include three regions, where each region includes at least one fuel cell having an MEA with a catalyst material. Based on the locations of each fuel cell in the fuel cell stack, catalyst materials may vary For example, if an area is more susceptible to catalyst degradation, catalyst materials that have superior durability (i.e., difficult to dissolve or degrade) may be applied to the fuel cells located in that area. Further, if an area is expected to operate in a steady state, catalyst materials that exhibit robust catalytic activity may be selected to fabricate MEAs of the fuel cells located in the area.

[0088] Referring to Figure 4, the fuel cell stack 70 may include a first region 80, a second region 90, and a third region 1000. The first region 80 may be adjacent to a first reactant inlet, such as H2. The second region 90 may be adjacent to a second reactant inlet, such as O2 or air. The third region 100 is situated between the first and second regions, 60 and 70.

[0089] At least one fuel cell, for example, fuel cell X, in the first region 80 may include an MEA with a first catalyst material on either or both an anode and a cathode of the fuel cell X. Similarly, at least one fuel cell, for example, fuel cell Z, in the second region 90 may include an MEA with a second catalyst material on either or both an anode and a cathode of the fuel cell Z. Likewise, at least one fuel cell, for example, fuel cell Y, in the third region 100 may include an MEA with a third catalyst material on either or both an anode and a cathode of the fuel cell Y. According to the locations of fuel cells X, Y and Z in the fuel cell stack 70, at least one of the first, second, and third catalyst materials are different.

[0090] Particularly, the first catalyst material in fuel cell X may include a first ternary alloy catalyst with a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M = Mn, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr, Sn, Mo, V, Fe, Te, In, Re, Ag, Ru, Ga, Sb, Ti, W, Nb, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os. The second catalyst material in fuel cell Z may include a second ternary alloy catalyst with a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M = Mn, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr, Sn, Mo, V, Fe, Te, In, Re, Ag, Ru, Ga, Sb, Ti, W, Nb, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os. The third catalyst material in fuel cell Y may include a third ternary alloy catalyst with a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M = Mn, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr, Sn, Mo, V, Fe, Te, In, Re, Ag, Ru, Ga, Sb, Ti, W, Nb, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os. Based on the location of the fuel cells X, Y, and Z in the fuel cell stack 70, the composition ratios of x and z in at least one of the first, second, and third ternary alloy catalysts may be different. Additionally, the M element in the at least one of the first, second, and third ternary alloy catalysts may also be different.

[0091] In addition to catalyst materials, catalyst loadings may also influence catalytic activities of a fuel cell stack. High catalyst loadings may extend a lifetime of the fuel cell stack and consequently boost the fuel cell stack performance. On the other hand, low catalyst loadings may accelerate catalyst consumption and also affect fuel cell performance. Therefore, besides varying the catalyst materials according to the locations of the fuel cells in the fuel cell stack, dynamically allocating catalyst loadings in the fuel cells according to the locations of the fuel cells in the fuel cell stack may further improve the performance and durability of the fuel cell stack.

[0092] Apart from catalyst materials and catalyst loadings, other factors may also influence the performance and durability of the fuel cell stack. Some of these factors may include catalyst support materials and ionomers used in the MEAs of the fuel cells in the fuel cell stack. Therefore, varying the catalyst support materials and/or the ionomers in the fuel cells based on the locations of the fuel cells in the fuel cell stack may also improve the performance and durability of the fuel cell stack. [0093] In addition to be used as a catalyst material for a fuel cell, ternary alloys with the chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M = Mn, Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr, Sn, Mo, V, Fe, Te, In, Re, Ag, Ru, Ga, Sb, Ti, W, Nb, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, or Os, may also be used in carbon dioxide (CO2) reduction reaction, nitrogen reduction reaction, and other chemical conversion processes.

[0094] While exemplary embodiments are described above, it is not intended that these embodiments describe all possible forms encompassed by the claims. The words used in the specification are words of description rather than limitation, and it is understood that various changes can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. As previously described, the features of various embodiments can be combined to form further embodiments of the present disclosure that may not be explicitly described or illustrated. While various embodiments could have been described as providing advantages or being preferred over other embodiments or prior art implementations with respect to one or more desired characteristics, those of ordinary skill in the art recognize that one or more features or characteristics can be compromised to achieve desired overall system attributes, which depend on the specific application and implementation. These attributes can include, but are not limited to cost, strength, durability, life cycle cost, marketability, appearance, packaging, size, serviceability, weight, manufacturability, ease of assembly, etc. As such, to the extent any embodiments are described as less desirable than other embodiments or prior art implementations with respect to one or more characteristics, these embodiments are not outside the scope of the disclosure and can be desirable for particular applications.

Claims

WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A fuel cell catalyst material comprising: a metal alloy, the metal alloy being a ternary alloy that has a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co.

2. The fuel cell catalyst material of claim 1, wherein the ternary alloy is Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05, and M is selected from the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr, Sn, Mo, V, Fe, Te, In, Re, Ag, Ru, Ga, Sb, Ti, W, Nb, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os.

3. The fuel cell catalyst material of claim 1, wherein the ternary alloy is Pt075Co015M010, and M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Ni, Sn, Te, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os.

4. The fuel cell catalyst material of claim 1, wherein the ternary alloy is Pt0.70Co0.15M0.15, and M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Sn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os.

5. The fuel cell catalyst material of claim 1, wherein the ternary alloy is Pt0 65Co0 15M0 20, Pt0 60Co0 15M0 25, or Pt0 50Co0 15M0 35.

6. The fuel cell catalyst material of claim 5, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os.

7. A fuel cell catalyst layer comprising: a catalyst support; and a catalyst material mixed with or coated onto the catalyst support, the catalyst material being a ternary alloy that has a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal other than from Pt and Co.

8. The fuel cell catalyst layer of claim 7, wherein the ternary alloy is Pt0.80Co0.15M0.05, and M is selected from the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr, Sn, Mo, V, Fe, Te, In, Re, Ag, Ru, Ga, Sb, Ti, W, Nb, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os.

9. The fuel cell catalyst layer of claim 7, wherein the ternary alloy is Pt0.75Co0.15M0.10, and M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Ni, Sn, Te, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os.

10. The fuel cell catalyst layer of claim 7, wherein the ternary alloy is

Pt0.70Co0.15M0.15, and M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Sn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os.

11. The fuel cell catalyst layer of claim 7, wherein the ternary alloy is

Pt0.65Co0.15M0.20, Pt0.60Co0.15M0.25, or Pt0.50Co0.15M0.35.

12. The fuel cell catalyst layer of claim 11, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os.

13. The fuel cell catalyst layer of claim 7, wherein the catalyst support is selected from the group consisting of carbon black, fibrous carbon, graphite, graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, defective graphene, defected graphite, graphyne, titanium oxide (TiO, Ti20s, or TiO2), tin oxide (SnO or SnO2), molybdenum oxide (MoOx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3), niobium oxide (Nb20s), magnesium titanium oxide (MgTi2O5-x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 5), and titanium-tin oxide (TiSnOx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4).

14. A fuel cell comprising: a membrane electrode assembly (MEA), the MEA including: catalyst layers having a catalyst material supported by a catalyst support, respectively; a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) situated between the catalyst layers; and gas diffusion layers (GDLs) separated from the PEM by the catalyst layers, respectively; and flow field plates connected to the GDLs, respectively, the catalyst material is a ternary alloy having a chemical formula PtxCoyMz, where 0.40 ≤ x ≤ 0.90, 0.05 ≤ y ≤ 0.25, 0.05 ≤ z ≤ 0.35, and M is a metal element other than Pt and Co.

15. The fuel cell of claim 14, wherein the ternary alloy is Pto.soCoo.isMo.os, and M is selected from the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr, Sn, Mo, V, Fe, Te, In, Re, Ag, Ru, Ga, Sb, Ti, W, Nb, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os.

16. The fuel cell of claim 14, wherein the ternary alloy is Pt0.75Co0.15M0.10, and M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Ni, Sn, Te, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os.

17. The fuel cell of claim 14, wherein the ternary alloy is Pto.70Coo.15Mo.15, and M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Sn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os.

18. The fuel cell of claim 14, wherein the ternary alloy is Pt0.65Co0.15M0.20, Pt0.60Co0.15M0.25, or Pt0.50Co0.15M0.35.

19. The fuel cell of claim 18, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Tl, Au, Ir, Rh, and Os.

20. The fuel cell of claim 14, wherein the catalyst support is selected from the group consisting of carbon black, fibrous carbon, graphite, graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, defective graphene, defected graphite, graphyne, titanium oxide (TiO, T12O3, or TiO2), tin oxide (SnO or SnO2), molybdenum oxide (MoOx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3), niobium oxide (Nb2Os), magnesium titanium oxide (MgTi2Os-_x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 5), and titanium -tin oxide (TiSnOx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4).