PH12017000230A1 - A combination of high temperature and acidic conditions for generating bioelectricity using microbial fuel cells (mfc) systems - Google Patents
A combination of high temperature and acidic conditions for generating bioelectricity using microbial fuel cells (mfc) systems Download PDFInfo
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- 239000000446 fuel Substances 0.000 title claims abstract description 37
- 230000000813 microbial effect Effects 0.000 title claims abstract description 28
- 230000002378 acidificating effect Effects 0.000 title claims abstract description 26
- 230000005611 electricity Effects 0.000 claims abstract description 26
- XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N water Substances O XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 claims abstract description 21
- 244000005700 microbiome Species 0.000 claims abstract description 11
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- 241000894006 Bacteria Species 0.000 claims description 14
- OKTJSMMVPCPJKN-UHFFFAOYSA-N Carbon Chemical compound [C] OKTJSMMVPCPJKN-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 claims description 10
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- 102000004190 Enzymes Human genes 0.000 claims 14
- 108090000790 Enzymes Proteins 0.000 claims 14
- 239000011942 biocatalyst Substances 0.000 claims 14
- 239000002184 metal Substances 0.000 claims 5
- 229910052751 metal Inorganic materials 0.000 claims 5
- QVGXLLKOCUKJST-UHFFFAOYSA-N atomic oxygen Chemical compound [O] QVGXLLKOCUKJST-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 claims 2
- 239000001301 oxygen Substances 0.000 claims 2
- RYGMFSIKBFXOCR-UHFFFAOYSA-N Copper Chemical compound [Cu] RYGMFSIKBFXOCR-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 claims 1
- FAPWRFPIFSIZLT-UHFFFAOYSA-M Sodium chloride Chemical compound [Na+].[Cl-] FAPWRFPIFSIZLT-UHFFFAOYSA-M 0.000 claims 1
- 239000003575 carbonaceous material Substances 0.000 claims 1
- 229910052802 copper Inorganic materials 0.000 claims 1
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- 239000007787 solid Substances 0.000 claims 1
- 239000013049 sediment Substances 0.000 abstract description 14
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- 239000010405 anode material Substances 0.000 description 4
- 229910002804 graphite Inorganic materials 0.000 description 4
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- 238000011065 in-situ storage Methods 0.000 description 4
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- 238000010248 power generation Methods 0.000 description 3
- 238000004065 wastewater treatment Methods 0.000 description 3
- 241000588841 Acidiphilium sp. Species 0.000 description 2
- 239000002028 Biomass Substances 0.000 description 2
- CURLTUGMZLYLDI-UHFFFAOYSA-N Carbon dioxide Chemical compound O=C=O CURLTUGMZLYLDI-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 2
- WQZGKKKJIJFFOK-GASJEMHNSA-N Glucose Natural products OC[C@H]1OC(O)[C@H](O)[C@@H](O)[C@@H]1O WQZGKKKJIJFFOK-GASJEMHNSA-N 0.000 description 2
- QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYSA-L Sulfate Chemical compound [O-]S([O-])(=O)=O QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYSA-L 0.000 description 2
- 239000002253 acid Substances 0.000 description 2
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- 239000008103 glucose Substances 0.000 description 2
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- QTBSBXVTEAMEQO-UHFFFAOYSA-M Acetate Chemical compound CC([O-])=O QTBSBXVTEAMEQO-UHFFFAOYSA-M 0.000 description 1
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
- Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
- Y02P70/00—Climate change mitigation technologies in the production process for final industrial or consumer products
- Y02P70/50—Manufacturing or production processes characterised by the final manufactured product
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Abstract
The use of extremophiles as bioelectrocatalysts in Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) systems able to operate under extreme conditions of pH, salinity, or temperature could enhance electricity production. Volcanic vents and mudspring systems of Mt. Makiling, an acidic hot spring (80-120oC, pH 2-3) located on the mountainside of Mt. Makiling, Los Banos, Laguna are considered extreme environments (Bundac et al., 1976; Huang et al., 2005), and they are potential sources of thermo-acidophilic microorganisms that can serve as bioelectrocatalysts in MFC systems. This is the first effort to utilize the Mt. Makiling mudspring microcosm for bioelectricity generation. The innovative MFC set-up was run under combined high temperature and acidic conditions (=80oC, pH 2-3) using sediment and water from Mt. Makiling mudspring in the anode and cathode chambers, respectively and incubated at ~70oC. During the 1.5 month incubation period, electricity was generated by the set-up, eventhough it was only in the range of 0.45-0.8V (0.192-0.333 A/m2, 0.083-0.267 W/m2) at pH 2-3 in the absence of redox mediators. A combination of high temperature and acidic conditions has the potential to generate more electricity as compared against conventional MFCs run under mesophilic, neutral pH conditions.
Description
on »
Microbial production of electricity may become an important form of bioenergy since
Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) offer the possibility of extracting green electrical energy i» during the catalytic reaction of microorganisms on a wide range of complex organic ta wastes and renewable biomass. It is possible to directly generate electricity-using Lr bacteria while accomplishing wastewater treatment in processes based on microbial fuel > cell technologies (Mathuriya and Sharma, 2009). The use of MFC as an alternative = source for power generation is considered as a reliable, clean, efficient process, which - utilizes renewable methods and does not generate any toxic by-product (Chaturvedi and A
Verma, 2016).
The use of bacteria that function optimally under extreme conditions are beginning to be examined because they may serve as more effective catalysts (higher activity, greater stability, longer life, capable of utilizing a broader range of fuels) in microbial fuel cells for higher power production (Mathis et al, 2008). Extremes in pH, salinity, and temperature when combined with materials that operate best under such conditions would potentially result in more powerful MFCs.
The group of Mathis et al. (2008) showed that incubation of marine sediment fuel cells containing thermophilic electrode-reducing bacteria in the anode chamber at 60 °C gave approximately ten times greater electric current than incubation at 22 °C. The use of thermophilic bacteria as catalysts in fuel cells holds much promise because they will generate higher rates of metabolic activity (in this case resulting in more electricity) and will be more stable under severe conditions.
In a separate study, the group of Garcia-Munoz (2011) were able to colonize graphite felt electrodes with pure culture of Acidiphilium sp. from the Rio Tinto river and produced electro-catalytic current densities and power outputs by oxidizing glucose even at saturating air concentrations and very low pH values (pH 3) in the absence of redox mediators. MFCs that are able to operate at low pH are advantageous since the proton transport rate from anode to cathode increases and the kinetic barrier for O, reduction to H,O at the cathode decreases, leading to higher current and power densities.
The present invention shows the potential of using extremophiles able to operate under conditions of high temperature and low pH values as bioelectrocatalysts in MFC systems to obtain higher power production. The present system utilizes mud and water o - om from Mt. Makiling mudspring in the anode and cathode chambers, respectively and = incubated at ~70 °C. Previous studies have shown that Mt. Makiling Mudspring is an o acid solfatera with in situ temperatures ranging from 70 to 90 °C, pH values ranging from 2 to 5 and a high salinity dominated by iron and sulfate (Lantican et al., 2010; .
Bundac et al. 1976; Oles and Houben, 1998). w= bos
{rt
A Combination of High Temperature and Acidic conditions for Generating =
Bioelectricity using Microbial Fuel Cells (MFC) Systems i frets
The use of extremophiles as bioelectrocatalysts in Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) systems able to ps operate under extreme conditions of pH, salinity, or temperature could enhance electricity — production. Volcanic vents and mudspring systems of Mt. Makiling, an acidic hot spring (80- = 120°C, pH 2-3) located on the mountainside of Mt. Makiling, Los Bafios, Laguna are - considered extreme environments (Bundac et al, 1976; Huang et al, 2005), and they are _ potential sources of thermo-acidophilic microorganisms that can serve as bioelectrocatalysts = [ in MFC systems. This is the first effort to utilize the Mt. Makiling mudspring microcosm for os bioelectricity generation. =
The innovative MFC set-up was run under combined high temperature and acidic conditions (280 °C, pH 2-3) using the sediment and water from Mt. Makiling mudspring in the anode and cathode chambers, respectively and incubated at ~70 °C. During the 1.5 month incubation period, electricity was generated by the set-up, eventhough it was only in the range of 0.45 - 0.8 V (0.192-0.333 A/m’, 0.083-0.267 W/m?) at pH 2-3 in the absence of redox mediators. A combination of high temperature and acidic condition has the potential to generate more electricity as compared against conventional MFCs run under mesophilic, neutral pH conditions. : 2 3 = 3 = = ; = =: - e 10% wd { m
Va)
fo
A Combination of High Temperature and Acidic conditions for Generating =3 > -
Bioelectricity using Microbial Fuel Cells (MFC) Systems £2 : i
Sg
FIELD OF INVENTION om ; He
This invention relates to a Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) that offer promising ar prospects in the field of renewable energy since green electrical power is produced by B the ba reaction of microorganisms on a wide range of complex organic wastes and = renewable biomass. o
The use of bacteria that function optimally under extreme conditions (extremophiles) - are beginning to be examined for MFC systems because they may serve as more effective catalysts (i.e. higher activity, greater stability, longer life, capable of utilizing a broader range of fuels) in microbial fuel cell systems that operate under conditions of extreme pH, salinity, or temperature that favor higher power production. Volcanic vents and mudspring systems of Mt. Makiling, an acidic hot spring (80-120°C, pH 2-3) located on the mountainside of Mt. Makiling, Los Bafios, Laguna are considered extreme environments, and they are potential sources of thermo-acidophilic microorganisms capable of surviving and functioning under such conditions (Bundac et al., 1976; Huang et al., 2005).
The use of sediment and water from Mt. Makiling mudspring in the anode and cathode chambers, respectively of the MFC system incubated under high temperature- acidic conditions (280 °C, pH 2-3) was shown to generate electricity. MFCs run under the combined high temperature-acidic conditions has the potential to generate more electricity as compared against conventional MFCs run under mesophilic conditions.
At the present time the amount of power generated by the microbial fuel cell using sediments and water from Mt. Makiling is small. However, the potential is big since the power generated in an MFC is expected to increase exponentially as the population of microbial catalysts on the anode increases with time. Furthermore, an in situ MFC system can be constructed on the Mt. Makiling mudspring site with minimum amount of investment and the power generated can be collected in portable batteries and used to power electrical equipment with very low power requirements.
on fr or
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Pd
Microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology represents a new form of renewable energy by oe generating electricity from organic matter that otherwise would be considered waste or - have little practical value. It is possible to directly generate electricity-using bacteria while accomplishing wastewater treatment in processes based on microbial fuel cell technologies (Mathuriya and Sharma, 2009). The use of MFC as an alternative source for - power generation is considered as a reliable, clean, efficient process, which utilizes © renewable methods and does not generate any toxic by-product (Chaturvedi and Verma, ox 2016). -
The concept of using microorganisms to convert organic materials to electricity was explored from the 1970s (Suzuki 1976, 1977). Several studies have demonstrated that physico-chemical, biological and structural factors of MFCs, such as catalysts, electrodes, electrolytes, reactor types, and attached microbial growths on the anodes, should be collectively evaluated and optimized to increase electrical power generation (Joo-Youn et al., 2010).
The attached microbial growth forming a biofilm matrix on the surface of MFC anodes is responsible for electricity generation, and plays a key role in MFCs (Joo-Youn et al., 2010). The oxidation of organic matter takes place in the anode, and if the electrons are led to the cathode through an external circuit, a voltage drop and an electrical current are produced, thus transforming chemical energy into electrical power (Ortiz-Martinez et al, 2015). Microbial fuel cells can be used in wastewater treatment to convert organic matter in wastewater into carbon dioxide, clean water, and electricity (Mathuriya and Sharma, 2009).
The use of bacteria that function optimally under extreme conditions are beginning to be examined because they may serve as more effective catalysts (higher activity, greater stability, longer life, capable of utilizing a broader range of fuels) in microbial fuel cells for higher power production (Mathis et al., 2008). Extremes in pH, salinity, and temperature when combined with materials that operate best under such conditions would potentially result in more powerful MFCs.
Marine sediment from temperate waters of Charleston, South Carolina, USA was used by the group of Mathis et al. (2008) as the source of thermophilic electrode- reducing bacteria. Their experiments showed that when sediment fuel cells were i - incubated at 60 °C, electric current that normalized to the surface area of graphite = electrodes was approximately ten times greater than at 22 °C (209-254 mA/m’ and 10-22 mA/m?), respectively. Identification of the heavy biofilms that formed on the graphite — anodes of acetate-fed fuel cells by 16S RNA gave a 99% similarity to the gram-positive = thermophile, Thermincola carboxydophila. The use of extremophilic bacteria as catalysts in fuel cells holds much promise because they will generate higher rates of metabolic activity (in this case resulting in more electricity) and will be more stable under severe = conditions. a
The group of Garcia-Munoz (2011) were able to colonize graphite felt electrodes with " pure culture of Acidiphilium sp. from Rio Tinto (identified from a microcosm of the - acidic ecosystem) and produce electro-catalytic current densities and power outputs of up to 3.5 A/m’ and 0.3 W/m’, respectively, at pH 3 in the absence of redox mediators, by oxidizing glucose even at saturating air concentrations and very low pH values. MFCs that are able to operate at low pH are technologically advantageous, as the proton transport rate from anode to cathode increases and the kinetic barrier for O, reduction to
H,O at the cathode decreases, which leads to higher current and power densities (Biffinger et al, 2008; Erable et al, 2009).
The present invention shows the potential of using extremophiles able to operate under conditions of high temperature and low pH values as bioelectrocatalysts in MFC systems to obtain higher power production. The present system utilizes mud and water from Mt. Makiling mudspring in the anode and cathode chambers, respectively and incubated at ~70 °C. Previous studies have shown that Mt. Makiling Mudspring is an acid solfatera with in situ temperatures ranging from 70 to 90 °C, pH values ranging from 2 to 5 and a high salinity dominated by iron and sulfate (Lantican et al., 2010;
Bundac et al. 1976; Oles and Houben 1998).
Conventional Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) set ups are usually run under ambient temperature and neutral pH conditions. However, the use of extremophiles in MFC systems is of particular interest because these microorganisms could serve as bioelectrocatalysts in systems able to operate under conditions of pH, salinity, or temperature that are more favorable for higher power production (Mathis et al., 2008).
Volcanic vents and mudspring systems of Mt. Makiling, an acidic hot spring (80- 120°C, pH 2-3) located on the mountainside of Mt. Makiling, Los Baiios, Laguna are
LAT considered extreme environments, and they are potential sources of thermo-acidophilic = microorganisms capable of surviving and functioning under such conditions (Bundac et i. al,, 1976; Huang et al, 2005). —
Extremophilic bacteria have higher rates of metabolic activity at high temperature, at i. the same time the low pH condition increases the proton transport rate from anode to +e cathode while the kinetic barrier for O; reduction to H;O at the cathode decreases. The “1 combined high temperature-low pH condition is expected to lead to higher current and - power densities. This is the first effort to utilize the Mt. Makiling mudspring microcosm = for bioelectricity generation. o
The current innovative MFC set-up was run under combined high temperature and ~ acidic conditions (>80 °C, pH 2-3) using the mud and water from Mt. Makiling mudspring in the anode and cathode chambers, respectively and incubated at ~70 °C.
The said combination has the potential to generate more electricity as compared against conventional MFCs run under mesophilic, neutral pH conditions.
A combination of high temperature and acidic condition has not yet been utilized for bioelectricity generation in MFC set-ups. The present MFC set-up that was run under combined high temperature and acidic conditions (270 °C, pH 2-3) has the potential to generate more electricity as compared against conventional MFCs run under mesophilic conditions.
A two-chambered laboratory scale MFC system was fabricated to evaluate the potential of mudspring ecosystem for bioelectricity generation potential. Mud and water from Mt. Makiling mudspring were placed in the anode and cathode chambers of the set- up, respectively and high temperature stable agar was used as a component of the salt bridge. The MFC system was set-up inside an incubator set at ~70 °C located at the
BIOTECH-UP Los Baiios Pilot Plant. Electricity generation from the set-up was measured using an ammeter.
Electricity was generated by the set-up during the 1.5 month incubation period, eventhough it was only in the range of 0.45 - 0.8 V (0.192-0.333 A/m’, 0.083-0.267
W/m?) at pH 2-3 in the absence of redox mediators.
iE -
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS = tl
Figure 1. The Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) set-ups that were fabricated to evaluate the potential = of microbial systems to generate electricity. i.
Figure 2. The Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) set-ups that were incubated at ~70 °C containing = mudspring sediment in the anode chamber and mudspring water in the cathode o chamber. _ wo
The MFC set-ups. The microbial fuel cell (MFC) system was fabricated and prepared as shown in Figure 1. Set-up A utilized interfolded stainless steel sheet (15 cm x 2 cm length x width) as anode material while Set-up B utilized eight carbon brushes (2 cm x 0.5 cm x 0.5 cm length x width x height), aligned and fastened together with an iron clip as anode terminal. Electricity generation was measured using a voltmeter.
Sediment and water were collected from Mt. Makiling mudspring and the anode chambers of set-ups A and B were filled up with sediments from mudspring while the water was used to fill up the cathode chamber of both set-ups. The anode materials (interfolded stainless steel sheet for set-up A and aligned carbon brushes for set-up B) were utilized. The MFC systems were set-up inside an incubator set at ~70 °C located at the BIOTECH Pilot Plant (Figure 2).
Electricity generation.
Shown in Table 1 are the measurements intermittently taken from day 0 to day 46
October 2 using a voltmeter. As expected for the date of preparation and readings for days 0 and 4, respectively, the measurements were still low. This could be attributed to the low population of microbial cells from the sediment that were deposited or attached to the surface of the anode terminals. Likewise, the anaerobic condition in the set-up was still stabilizing during this period. A potential problem and possible point of adjustment is the incubation temperature of ~70 °C which is lower than the measured temperature of 85 °C in the mudspring water surface and could be considerably higher as the mudspring deepens. It is assumed that the actual temperature of the sediment in situ would be much higher than 85 °C.
-
Table 1. Electricity generation of the microbial fuel cell (MFC) systems using Mt. =
Makiling mudspring sediment in the anode chamber and mudspring water in the rt cathode chamber. os
DCY (volts) — d iE (days) 025DCV | 25DCV | 025DCV | 25DCV range range range range o — i, i " ; fd ow [ow | es oss | om
The MFC systems were set-up inside an incubator set at ~70 °C located at the BIOTECH Pilot
Plant.
From the measurements it was observed that the readings at day 25 and day 46 were higher for set-up B using the carbon brush anode material as compared against set-up A using interfolded stainless steel. This could indicate that more of the target organisms were present on, attracted to or formed a biopolymer on the surface of the carbon brush than the stainless steel. It is assumed that the target organisms degraded organic matters present in the sediment during their metabolism, thereby releasing negatively-charged electrons directly to the anode or releasing bio-molecules that enhance the transfer of electrons to the anode. It could be assumed that the presence of more target organisms on the surface or in the immediate vicinity of the anode materials could lead to more negatively charged electrons generated, and in conjunction with the positively charged protons that transferred to the cathode chamber through the salt bridge, a higher amount of electricity will be generated.
Claims (6)
1. A microbial fuel cell comprising; ~ 2 an anode compartment and a cathode compartment connected through a salt bridge, = i// = 0 ! 3 . t co said anode compartment comprising an anodic electrode and an anode biocatalyst, - i wherein said anode compartment is filled with mud from high temperature (~ 80-100 °C) is acidic (pH ~2-3) mudspring containing organic substances, = wherein said anodic electrode is made of bound carbon/graphite powder material, = wherein said anode biocatalyst catalyzes the oxidation of the organic substances contained therein, said cathode compartment comprising a cathodic electrode and a cathode biocatalyst, wherein said cathode compartment contains water from high temperature acidic mudspring, wherein said cathodic electrode is made of copper material, wherein said cathode biocatalyst catalyzes the reduction of a metal, said salt bridge is resistant to high temperature and acidic pH conditions, and it is composed of agar and sodium chloride salt, wherein said agar is solid at high temperature with high thermal stability and clarity, the salt bridge is contained in a connecting tube positioned between the anode and cathode compartments, wherein said anode biocatalyst and the cathode biocatalyst are substantially the same, and wherein the whole microbial fuel cell set-up is maintained at approximately 70 -120°C incubation temperature.
2. The fuel cell of claim 1, wherein the anode compartment is maintained under substantially anaerobic conditions, and wherein said anode biocatalyst are microorganisms thriving in the acidic mud and catalyzes the oxidation of the organic substances contained therein, and wherein said anode biocatalyst is facultative to anaerobic in terms of oxygen requirement. =
3. The fuel cell of claim 1, wherein said cathode biocatalyst are microorganisms thriving in = the water of the high temperature acidic mudspring system and catalyzes the reduction of a we metal, and pe a wherein said cathode biocatalyst is oxygen-tolerant. Lr
4. The fuel cell of claim 1, wherein the fuel cell is self-powered and operable to generate os electricity. =
5. A method of generating electricity, the method comprising: te the fuel cell in claim 1 with anode and cathode compartments operated at a combination of high temperature (70 °C) and acidic pH (2-3) conditions, said anode compartment and cathode compartment are connected to each other by a salt bridge, said anode compartment comprising an anodic electrode and an anode biocatalyst, the anode compartment is filled with mud from a high temperature (~80-100 °C) acidic mudspring system with a pH of 2 -3 containing organic substances, said anode biocatalyst are bacteria in the mud that catalyze the oxidation of organic substances, and in the process generates electrons and protons, said anode compartment also contain the anodic electrode which is made of carbon material embedded in the mud that readily accepts electrons from the environment, electrons generated from the oxidation are transferred to the anodic electrode then flow through an electrical circuit with a load or a resistor, protons generated in the oxidation flow through the salt bridge towards the cathode compartment, said cathode compartment comprising a cathodic electrode and a cathode biocatalyst, said cathode compartment contains water from the high temperature acidic mudspring system,
n wherein said cathode biocatalyst are microorganisms thriving in the acidic mudspring water = and catalyzes the reduction of a metal, r said water contains bacteria that catalyze the reduction of the metal of the cathodic electrode ce using the electrons from the anodic electrode, the protons that traversed the salt bridge from i the anode compartment and oxygen in the water to generate electric potential and water, the bacteria catalyzing oxidation of the organic substance and the bacteria catalyzing oe reduction of the metal are substantially the same. = Fl
6. The fuel cell of claim 1, wherein the fuel cell is operable in high temperature acidic 0 environments, - wherein the temperature ranges from approximately 70 to 120°C and pH of approximately 2-
3.
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Citations (2)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| US20100040908A1 (en) * | 2007-05-02 | 2010-02-18 | University Of Southern California | Microbial fuel cells |
| US20100119920A1 (en) * | 2004-07-14 | 2010-05-13 | The Penn State Research Foundation | Cathodes for microbial electrolysis cells and microbial fuel cells |
-
2017
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Patent Citations (2)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| US20100119920A1 (en) * | 2004-07-14 | 2010-05-13 | The Penn State Research Foundation | Cathodes for microbial electrolysis cells and microbial fuel cells |
| US20100040908A1 (en) * | 2007-05-02 | 2010-02-18 | University Of Southern California | Microbial fuel cells |
Non-Patent Citations (2)
| Title |
|---|
| Fu et al., "Bioelectrochemical analysis of a hyperthermophilic microbial fuel cell generating electricity at temperatures above 80 degrees C", Bioscience Biotechnology And Biochemistry Vol: 79 Issue: 7 Pages: 1200-1206, July 3, 2015 * |
| Min B et al. "Electricity generation using membrane and salt bridge microbial fuel cells", Water Research 39 (2005) pp. 1675-1686 * |
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