JPS61108865A - Piezoelectric type fuel injection device - Google Patents
Piezoelectric type fuel injection deviceInfo
- Publication number
- JPS61108865A JPS61108865A JP22797284A JP22797284A JPS61108865A JP S61108865 A JPS61108865 A JP S61108865A JP 22797284 A JP22797284 A JP 22797284A JP 22797284 A JP22797284 A JP 22797284A JP S61108865 A JPS61108865 A JP S61108865A
- Authority
- JP
- Japan
- Prior art keywords
- fuel
- piston
- fuel injection
- pressure
- drive
- Prior art date
- Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.)
- Pending
Links
- 239000000446 fuel Substances 0.000 title claims abstract description 63
- 238000002347 injection Methods 0.000 title claims abstract description 17
- 239000007924 injection Substances 0.000 title claims abstract description 17
- 238000002485 combustion reaction Methods 0.000 abstract description 3
- 230000008878 coupling Effects 0.000 abstract description 3
- 238000010168 coupling process Methods 0.000 abstract description 3
- 238000005859 coupling reaction Methods 0.000 abstract description 3
- 238000000889 atomisation Methods 0.000 abstract description 2
- 239000006185 dispersion Substances 0.000 abstract 1
- 230000000644 propagated effect Effects 0.000 abstract 1
- XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N water Substances O XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 3
- 230000007423 decrease Effects 0.000 description 2
- 238000010586 diagram Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000000694 effects Effects 0.000 description 1
- 230000001052 transient effect Effects 0.000 description 1
Classifications
-
- F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
- F02—COMBUSTION ENGINES; HOT-GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT ENGINE PLANTS
- F02M—SUPPLYING COMBUSTION ENGINES IN GENERAL WITH COMBUSTIBLE MIXTURES OR CONSTITUENTS THEREOF
- F02M51/00—Fuel-injection apparatus characterised by being operated electrically
- F02M51/04—Pumps peculiar thereto
-
- F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
- F02—COMBUSTION ENGINES; HOT-GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT ENGINE PLANTS
- F02M—SUPPLYING COMBUSTION ENGINES IN GENERAL WITH COMBUSTIBLE MIXTURES OR CONSTITUENTS THEREOF
- F02M61/00—Fuel-injectors not provided for in groups F02M39/00 - F02M57/00 or F02M67/00
- F02M61/04—Fuel-injectors not provided for in groups F02M39/00 - F02M57/00 or F02M67/00 having valves, e.g. having a plurality of valves in series
- F02M61/08—Fuel-injectors not provided for in groups F02M39/00 - F02M57/00 or F02M67/00 having valves, e.g. having a plurality of valves in series the valves opening in direction of fuel flow
-
- F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
- F02—COMBUSTION ENGINES; HOT-GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT ENGINE PLANTS
- F02M—SUPPLYING COMBUSTION ENGINES IN GENERAL WITH COMBUSTIBLE MIXTURES OR CONSTITUENTS THEREOF
- F02M63/00—Other fuel-injection apparatus having pertinent characteristics not provided for in groups F02M39/00 - F02M57/00 or F02M67/00; Details, component parts, or accessories of fuel-injection apparatus, not provided for in, or of interest apart from, the apparatus of groups F02M39/00 - F02M61/00 or F02M67/00; Combination of fuel pump with other devices, e.g. lubricating oil pump
- F02M63/06—Use of pressure wave generated by fuel inertia to open injection valves
-
- F—MECHANICAL ENGINEERING; LIGHTING; HEATING; WEAPONS; BLASTING
- F02—COMBUSTION ENGINES; HOT-GAS OR COMBUSTION-PRODUCT ENGINE PLANTS
- F02M—SUPPLYING COMBUSTION ENGINES IN GENERAL WITH COMBUSTIBLE MIXTURES OR CONSTITUENTS THEREOF
- F02M2200/00—Details of fuel-injection apparatus, not otherwise provided for
- F02M2200/21—Fuel-injection apparatus with piezoelectric or magnetostrictive elements
Landscapes
- Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
- Chemical & Material Sciences (AREA)
- Combustion & Propulsion (AREA)
- Mechanical Engineering (AREA)
- General Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
- Fuel-Injection Apparatus (AREA)
Abstract
Description
【発明の詳細な説明】
産業上の利用分野
本発明は内燃機関の燃料噴射装置、特に圧電素子による
高周波振動発生装置を駆動源として燃料噴射を行う、圧
電式燃料噴射装置に関するものである。DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a fuel injection device for an internal combustion engine, and more particularly to a piezoelectric fuel injection device that injects fuel using a high-frequency vibration generator using a piezoelectric element as a drive source.
従来の技術
内燃機関においてその出力性能を増大させるために燃料
噴射装置が採用されるよう忙なった。この燃料噴射装置
の代表的な型式として電子制御式燃料噴射装置（ＥＦＩ
と略称されている）があるが、この装置においては、各
気筒への燃料を噴射する各インジェクタは、その駆動源
としてそれぞれ別々のソレノイド等を有している。BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Fuel injection systems have been increasingly employed in internal combustion engines to increase their power performance. A typical type of this fuel injection device is the electronically controlled fuel injection device (EFI).
In this device, each injector that injects fuel into each cylinder has a separate solenoid or the like as its driving source.
発明が解決しようとする問題点
従来の燃料噴射装置は、上記のように各インジェクタが
駆動源として別々のソレノイドを有しているため、コス
トも高く、また各インジェクタの特性も各ソレノイドの
性能のばらつきに左右されてエンジン全体の性能に悪影
響を与えることが多い。Problems to be Solved by the Invention In conventional fuel injection devices, each injector has a separate solenoid as a driving source as described above, which is expensive, and the characteristics of each injector vary depending on the performance of each solenoid. This variation often has a negative impact on the overall performance of the engine.
本発明は、上記の従来装置の問題点に鑑み、各インジェ
クタの特性のばらつきをなくし、またコストを低減する
ことのできる燃料噴射装置を得ようとするものである。SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In view of the problems of the conventional devices described above, the present invention aims to provide a fuel injection device that can eliminate variations in the characteristics of each injector and reduce costs.
問題点を解決するだめの手段
本発明は上記問題点を解決するためにインジェクタの駆
動源として単一の高周波発生装置を用い、該振動発生装
置から生じる圧力波を各気筒用の燃料噴射部へ伝送する
よう構成したもので、インテークマニホルドの各下流部
に燃料を噴射する各アクチェータと、該各アクチェータ
に接続する各燃料通路と、該各燃料通路に接続し前記各
アクチェータを作動させる単一の駆動部とを具備し、前
記駆動部は圧電素子の積層体と、弾性体により該積層体
に押しつけられるピストンと、該ピストンを収容するシ
リンダと、燃料源に接続し該シリンダ内に燃料を供給す
る吸入管とを有し、前記駆動部の前記シリンダ内に、前
記各アクチェータに接続する前記各燃料通路を開口させ
たことを特徴とするものである。Means for Solving the Problems In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, the present invention uses a single high-frequency generator as a drive source for the injector, and sends pressure waves generated from the vibration generator to the fuel injection section for each cylinder. each actuator configured to inject fuel into each downstream portion of the intake manifold, each fuel passage connected to each said actuator, and a single actuator connected to each said fuel passage and actuated said each actuator. The driving section includes a stack of piezoelectric elements, a piston pressed against the stack by an elastic body, a cylinder housing the piston, and a fuel source connected to the cylinder to supply fuel into the cylinder. The present invention is characterized in that the fuel passage has a suction pipe that connects to each of the actuators, and each of the fuel passages connected to each of the actuators is opened in the cylinder of the drive unit.
実施例 本発明の実施例について図面を参照して以下説明する。Example Embodiments of the present invention will be described below with reference to the drawings.
第１図は本発明にかかる燃料噴射装置を適用したエンジ
ンの吸気管部の構成を示したものである。FIG. 1 shows the configuration of an intake pipe section of an engine to which a fuel injection device according to the present invention is applied.
図中１−＆は吸気管の一部をなすサージタンクであり、
マニホルド１−ｂを介してエンジンの各気筒に通じてい
る。各マニホルド１−ｂの下流部、すなわちインテーク
パルプの直前部には、ノズル部２が取付けられており、
マニホルド１−ｂ内に燃料を噴射できる様になっている
。各ノズル部２は各燃料供給管３を介して単一の駆動部
４に接続している。駆動部４は、図示しない燃料ポンプ
から燃料供給管５を通して圧送されて来た燃料を各燃料
供給管３を通してノズル部２へ圧送する。また駆動部４
は駆動回路６、中央処理装置（ＣＰＵ）７等により、エ
ンジン条件で燃料の送り出し量を可変にすることができ
る。In the figure, 1-& is a surge tank that forms part of the intake pipe.
It communicates with each cylinder of the engine via manifold 1-b. A nozzle part 2 is attached to the downstream part of each manifold 1-b, that is, just before the intake pulp.
Fuel can be injected into the manifold 1-b. Each nozzle section 2 is connected to a single drive section 4 via a respective fuel supply pipe 3. The drive unit 4 pressure-feeds fuel, which has been pressure-fed through a fuel supply pipe 5 from a fuel pump (not shown), to the nozzle unit 2 through each fuel supply pipe 3. Also, the drive unit 4
The amount of fuel delivered can be made variable depending on the engine conditions using the drive circuit 6, central processing unit (CPU) 7, etc.
第２図を参照して駆動部４の構成を説明する。The configuration of the drive section 4 will be explained with reference to FIG.
同図は駆動部４の断面図である。８は薄い円板状の圧電
素子の積層体でその周囲はチューブ１０で囲まれ、その
＋、−の端子はコネクタ９の端子９−ａ、９−ｂに接続
している。積層体８の一端はコネクタ９に支持され、他
端はピストン１１を介して皿ばね１２により押しつけら
れている。ピストン１１は、カバー１３の内面１３−ａ
に左右れ、シールはＯリング１５によシなされている。This figure is a sectional view of the drive section 4. Reference numeral 8 denotes a stack of thin disk-shaped piezoelectric elements, which is surrounded by a tube 10, whose + and - terminals are connected to terminals 9-a and 9-b of a connector 9. One end of the stacked body 8 is supported by a connector 9, and the other end is pressed by a disc spring 12 via a piston 11. The piston 11 is located on the inner surface 13-a of the cover 13.
The seal is made by an O-ring 15.
ハウジング１４とピストン１１により囲まれたシリンダ
室１６には、燃料供給管５を通して図示しない燃料ポン
プから圧送された燃料が吸入パイプ１８内に設けられた
吸入口１７及びハウジング１４内に設けられた図示しな
い吸入口を通して供給されている。また燃料ポンプと吸
入パイプ１８との間には供給圧を一定に保つ、図示しな
いプレツシャレギエレータが取付けられている。吸入パ
イプ１８とハウジング１４は、０リング１９゜２０によ
りシールされている。シリンダ内室１６と燃料供給管３
とはカップリング２２及び供給口２３を介して接続され
ている。燃料供給管３は、本実施例では４本設けられて
いる。A cylinder chamber 16 surrounded by the housing 14 and the piston 11 receives fuel fed under pressure from a fuel pump (not shown) through the fuel supply pipe 5 through an intake port 17 provided in an intake pipe 18 and an intake port 17 provided in the housing 14 (not shown). Not supplied through the inlet. Further, a pressure gierator (not shown) is installed between the fuel pump and the suction pipe 18 to keep the supply pressure constant. The suction pipe 18 and the housing 14 are sealed by O-rings 19.20. Cylinder inner chamber 16 and fuel supply pipe 3
is connected to via a coupling 22 and a supply port 23. In this embodiment, four fuel supply pipes 3 are provided.
第３図を参照してノズル部２の構成を説明する。The configuration of the nozzle section 2 will be explained with reference to FIG.
第３図はノズル部２をマニホルド１−ｂに取付けた状態
を示す断面図である。FIG. 3 is a sectional view showing a state in which the nozzle section 2 is attached to the manifold 1-b.
駆動部４に接続する燃料供給管３の先端はカップリング
２４によりノズルホルダ２５に結合されている。ノズル
ホルダ２５は、ガスケット２６を介してマニホルド１−
ｂに装着されている。ノズルホルダ２５の先端にはノズ
ル２７が取付けられている。ノズル２７は背圧が高くな
ると燃料を噴射する型式のものである。ノズル２７と燃
料供給管３とはノズルホルダ２５内に設けられた吐出口
２８を通して接続している。The tip of the fuel supply pipe 3 connected to the drive section 4 is coupled to a nozzle holder 25 by a coupling 24. The nozzle holder 25 is connected to the manifold 1 through a gasket 26.
It is attached to b. A nozzle 27 is attached to the tip of the nozzle holder 25. The nozzle 27 is of a type that injects fuel when the back pressure becomes high. The nozzle 27 and the fuel supply pipe 3 are connected through a discharge port 28 provided in the nozzle holder 25.
ノズル２７の詳細な構造を第４図を参照して説明する。The detailed structure of the nozzle 27 will be explained with reference to FIG.
ニードル１００はストッパ１０１を介してスプリング１
０２により、バルブシート１０３のシート面１０３ａ”
に押しつけられている。シート面１０３ａは、ニードル
１００が閉じた状態では、ニードルシート面１００ａと
精度良く接触しており、燃料が漏れることはない。また
燃料を流すため、ストッパ１０１には、連通穴１０１＆
が、またバルブシート１０３とニードル１００の間には
若干の隙間１０４か設けられている。The needle 100 is connected to the spring 1 via the stopper 101.
02, the seat surface 103a'' of the valve seat 103
is being forced on. The seat surface 103a is in precise contact with the needle seat surface 100a when the needle 100 is closed, and fuel will not leak. Also, in order to flow the fuel, the stopper 101 has a communication hole 101 &
However, there is also a slight gap 104 between the valve seat 103 and the needle 100.
第５図は駆動部４内に装置されている圧電素子積層体８
の駆動システムを示したものである。FIG. 5 shows a piezoelectric element stack 8 installed in the drive unit 4.
This figure shows the drive system of the
駆動回路６より、高電圧の駆動信号が積層体８に送られ
る。筒電圧はＤＣ−ＤＣコンバータ３１により発生する
。駆動信号の周期は、ＣＰＵ７により吸気量、車速、油
水温の変化に応じて決定される。駆動信号が、積層体８
に加えられると、積層体８は、第２図の左右方向に伸縮
する。A high voltage drive signal is sent from the drive circuit 6 to the stacked body 8 . The cylinder voltage is generated by the DC-DC converter 31. The period of the drive signal is determined by the CPU 7 according to changes in the intake air amount, vehicle speed, and oil/water temperature. The drive signal is applied to the stacked body 8
2, the laminate 8 expands and contracts in the left-right direction in FIG.
本実施例の作動は次のとおシである。The operation of this embodiment is as follows.
自動車が運転を始めると、第５図に示す駆動システムに
より、吸気量、車速、油水温に応じて駆動信号が駆動回
路６よシ駆動部４内の積層体８に送られる。駆動信号は
通常、矩形波に近く、高電圧側が積層体８に加えられた
場合には、積層体８は伸びグランドに落ちると積層体８
は元に戻る。When the automobile starts driving, the drive system shown in FIG. 5 sends a drive signal to the drive circuit 6 and the stacked body 8 in the drive section 4 in accordance with the intake air amount, vehicle speed, and oil/water temperature. The drive signal is usually close to a square wave, and when a high voltage side is applied to the stack 8, the stack 8 will stretch and when it falls to ground, the stack 8
returns to normal.
積層体８に駆動信号が与えられると駆動信号の周波数に
応じて積層体８は伸縮を生じる。ピストン１１は皿ばね
１２により積層体８に押しつけられているだめ、積り体
８の伸縮と共に第２図の左右方向に動く。このピストン
１１の動きは、非常に高速であるため、ピストン１１が
Ｅ方に動く場合（シリンダ内室１６の容積が減少する方
向）にはシリンダ内室１６に圧力波を生じ、その圧力政
が供給口２３、燃料供給管３、吐出口２８を通ってノズ
ル２７まで到達する。この圧力波によりノズル２７の背
圧が島くなるだめ、ノズル２７は開き、燃料は噴射され
る。背圧が高くなると、パルプシー）１０３の開口部面
積の方の圧力差が生じ、ニードルｉｏｏを開けようとす
る。この開けようとする力がスプリング１０２の力に打
ち勝てば、ニードル１００は開き、燃料は隙間１０４を
通って噴射される。When a drive signal is applied to the laminate 8, the laminate 8 expands and contracts depending on the frequency of the drive signal. Since the piston 11 is pressed against the stacked body 8 by the disc spring 12, it moves in the left-right direction in FIG. 2 as the stacked body 8 expands and contracts. This movement of the piston 11 is very fast, so when the piston 11 moves in the E direction (the direction in which the volume of the cylinder interior 16 decreases), pressure waves are generated in the cylinder interior 16, and the pressure control is The fuel passes through the supply port 23, the fuel supply pipe 3, and the discharge port 28 to reach the nozzle 27. This pressure wave causes the back pressure in the nozzle 27 to decrease, so the nozzle 27 opens and fuel is injected. When the back pressure increases, a pressure difference is generated in the opening area of the pulp sheet 103, which tends to open the needle ioo. If this opening force overcomes the force of spring 102, needle 100 opens and fuel is injected through gap 104.
燃料の噴射量はピストン１１の移動回数により決められ
るため、駆動信号の周波数によシ、燃料針は調整される
。周波数は自動車の吸気量、スロットル開度、油水温等
により調整される。Since the amount of fuel to be injected is determined by the number of times the piston 11 moves, the fuel needle is adjusted depending on the frequency of the drive signal. The frequency is adjusted according to the intake air amount, throttle opening, oil/water temperature, etc. of the automobile.
圧力波による昇圧は大きいため、ノズル２７の背圧は高
く、噴射される燃料の霧化は非常に良好である。Since the pressure increase due to the pressure wave is large, the back pressure of the nozzle 27 is high, and the atomization of the injected fuel is very good.
またノズル部２がマニホルド１−ｂの下流、つまり図示
しないインテークパルプの直前についているため、エン
ジンの過渡応答は非常に良好である。Further, since the nozzle section 2 is located downstream of the manifold 1-b, that is, just before the intake pulp (not shown), the transient response of the engine is very good.
発明の効果
本発明は以上のように、燃料を噴射する複数のアクチェ
ータ（ノズル）を圧電素子の積層体を用いた単一の駆動
部で駆動させるので、各アクチェータの作動にばらつき
を生じることがなく、構造も簡単であり、したがって、
従来の電子制御式燃料噴射装置（ＥＦＩ）と同等の性能
を安価に提供することができる。Effects of the Invention As described above, in the present invention, a plurality of actuators (nozzles) that inject fuel are driven by a single drive unit using a stack of piezoelectric elements, so that variations in the operation of each actuator are avoided. The structure is simple, and therefore,
It is possible to provide the same performance as a conventional electronically controlled fuel injection system (EFI) at a low cost.
第１図は本発明の実施例の全体構成の斜面図、第２図は
同上実施例における駆動部の拡大断面図、第３図は同上
実施例におけるノズル部の拡大断面図、第４図は第３図
に示すノズル部の先端部の拡大断面図、第５図は同上実
施例における駆動部の駆動システム図である。
１−ｂ・・・インテークマニホルド、２・・・ノズル部
、３・・・燃料供給管、４・・・駆動部、５・・・燃料
供給管、８・・・圧電素子積層体、１１・・・ピストン
、１２・・・ばね、１６・・・シリンダ内室、２７・・
・ノズル、２８・・・吐出口。FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the overall configuration of the embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 2 is an enlarged sectional view of the drive section in the embodiment, FIG. 3 is an enlarged sectional view of the nozzle section in the embodiment, and FIG. FIG. 3 is an enlarged sectional view of the tip of the nozzle section, and FIG. 5 is a diagram of the drive system of the drive section in the same embodiment. 1-b... Intake manifold, 2... Nozzle part, 3... Fuel supply pipe, 4... Drive part, 5... Fuel supply pipe, 8... Piezoelectric element laminate, 11... ...Piston, 12...Spring, 16...Cylinder interior, 27...
- Nozzle, 28...discharge port.
Claims (1)
各アクチエータと、該各アクチエータに接続する各燃料
通路と、該各燃料通路に接続し前記各アクチエータを作
動させる単一の駆動部とを具備し、前記駆動部は圧電素
子の積層体と、弾性体により該積層体に押しつけられる
ピストンと、該ピストンを収容しかつ燃料源に接続しそ
の内部に燃料が供給されるシリンダとを有し、該シリン
ダ内に、前記各アクチエータに接続する前記各燃料通路
を開口させたことを特徴とする圧電式燃料噴射装置。 ２、前記燃料噴射アクチエータが、背圧が高くなると開
き燃料を噴射する形式のノズルであることを特徴とする
特許請求の範囲第１項記載の圧電式燃料噴射装置。[Claims] 1. Each actuator that injects fuel into each downstream portion of the intake manifold, each fuel passage connected to each actuator, and a single actuator connected to each fuel passage and actuating each actuator. The driving section includes a stack of piezoelectric elements, a piston pressed against the stack by an elastic body, and a cylinder that accommodates the piston and is connected to a fuel source and into which fuel is supplied. A piezoelectric fuel injection device comprising: a cylinder, wherein each of the fuel passages connected to each of the actuators is opened in the cylinder. 2. The piezoelectric fuel injection device according to claim 1, wherein the fuel injection actuator is a nozzle that opens and injects fuel when back pressure increases.
Priority Applications (1)
| Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
|---|---|---|---|
| JP22797284A JPS61108865A (en) | 1984-10-31 | 1984-10-31 | Piezoelectric type fuel injection device |
Applications Claiming Priority (1)
| Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
|---|---|---|---|
| JP22797284A JPS61108865A (en) | 1984-10-31 | 1984-10-31 | Piezoelectric type fuel injection device |
Publications (1)
| Publication Number | Publication Date |
|---|---|
| JPS61108865A true JPS61108865A (en) | 1986-05-27 |
Family
ID=16869139
Family Applications (1)
| Application Number | Title | Priority Date | Filing Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| JP22797284A Pending JPS61108865A (en) | 1984-10-31 | 1984-10-31 | Piezoelectric type fuel injection device |
Country Status (1)
| Country | Link |
|---|---|
| JP (1) | JPS61108865A (en) |
Cited By (2)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| US4821726A (en) * | 1986-11-07 | 1989-04-18 | Nippondenso Co., Ltd. | Electronic fuel injection device |
| EP0733799A2 (en) * | 1991-02-26 | 1996-09-25 | Ficht GmbH & Co. KG | Fuel injection device for internal combustion engines |
Citations (1)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| JPS59183069A (en) * | 1983-03-31 | 1984-10-18 | Nippon Soken Inc | Electrostriction actuator |
-
1984
- 1984-10-31 JP JP22797284A patent/JPS61108865A/en active Pending
Patent Citations (1)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| JPS59183069A (en) * | 1983-03-31 | 1984-10-18 | Nippon Soken Inc | Electrostriction actuator |
Cited By (3)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| US4821726A (en) * | 1986-11-07 | 1989-04-18 | Nippondenso Co., Ltd. | Electronic fuel injection device |
| EP0733799A2 (en) * | 1991-02-26 | 1996-09-25 | Ficht GmbH & Co. KG | Fuel injection device for internal combustion engines |
| EP0733799A3 (en) * | 1991-02-26 | 1996-12-04 | Ficht Gmbh & Co Kg | Fuel injection device for internal combustion engines |
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