JP3329262B2 - Welding materials and welded joints with excellent resistance to reheat cracking - Google Patents
Welding materials and welded joints with excellent resistance to reheat crackingInfo
- Publication number
- JP3329262B2 JP3329262B2 JP07908298A JP7908298A JP3329262B2 JP 3329262 B2 JP3329262 B2 JP 3329262B2 JP 07908298 A JP07908298 A JP 07908298A JP 7908298 A JP7908298 A JP 7908298A JP 3329262 B2 JP3329262 B2 JP 3329262B2
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- Prior art keywords
- welding
- less
- weld metal
- reheat cracking
- corrosion resistance
- Prior art date
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Description
【０００１】[0001]
【発明の属する技術分野】ボイラ等の高温装置用部材で
ある高温耐食性に優れたオーステナイト鋼の溶接に使用
される溶接材料および溶接継手に関する。BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a welding material and a welding joint used for welding austenitic steel excellent in high-temperature corrosion resistance, which is a member for a high-temperature device such as a boiler.
【０００２】[0002]
【従来の技術】従来、ごみ焼却廃熱用ボイラの伝熱管な
どには主に18Cr-8Ni系のオーステナイトステンレス鋼が
使用されてきた。しかし、近年の運転条件、燃焼物の腐
食度の苛酷化にともない、より高温、悪環境での耐食性
に優れた材料が必要とされるようになった。このような
要求に応えるために、様々な元素を添加することにより
耐食性を高めた新材料が多数開発されてきた。例えば、
特開平4-350149号公報には、高Cr、Niをベ−スとして、
Si、Nb、Ti、Cu、REM等を添加することにより耐食性の
改善を図ったオーステナイト鋼が提案されている。2. Description of the Related Art Conventionally, 18Cr-8Ni-based austenitic stainless steel has been mainly used for heat transfer tubes of boilers for waste incineration waste heat. However, with the recent increase in operating conditions and the degree of corrosion of combustion products, materials having higher corrosion resistance in higher temperatures and in adverse environments have been required. To meet such demands, many new materials have been developed in which the corrosion resistance is increased by adding various elements. For example,
JP-A-4-350149 discloses that, based on high Cr and Ni,
Austenitic steels with improved corrosion resistance by adding Si, Nb, Ti, Cu, REM, etc. have been proposed.
【０００３】このようなオーステナイト鋼用の溶接材料
としては母材をそのまま溶接材料として使用する共金系
溶接材料、または高Ni合金用の溶接材料（例えば、JIS
Z3324中のYNiCrMo-3）を使用することが考えられる。し
かし、母材は溶製後、圧延、熱処理により組織を調整し
強度の確保を図るのに対し、溶接金属の場合は、凝固ま
まの組織であり、結晶粒は粗大で、かつ元素の偏析が生
じている。このため、特開昭63-309392号公報、特開平5
-220594号公報、および特開平7-60481号公報に開示され
ているように高温用の共金系溶接材料が、各種提案され
ているが、共金系溶接材料では耐食性や強度を母材と同
等にすることはきわめて困難である。As a welding material for such austenitic steel, a co-metal welding material using a base material as it is as a welding material, or a welding material for a high Ni alloy (for example, JIS)
It is conceivable to use YNiCrMo-3) in Z3324. However, while the base material is melted, the structure is adjusted by rolling and heat treatment to secure the strength, whereas in the case of the weld metal, the structure is as solidified, the crystal grains are coarse, and segregation of elements is caused. Has occurred. For this reason, JP-A-63-309392, JP-A-5-309392
-220594 Publication, and various disclosures of high-temperature co-metallic welding materials as disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 7-60481 have been proposed. It is very difficult to make them equal.
【０００４】とくに、本発明者らが初めて明らかにした
ことであるが、上記の共金系溶接材料では多層溶接時に
溶接金属内に極めて微小な割れが発生するという大問題
がある。その上、高温強度などの継手性能については考
慮されているが、塩化物や硫酸塩を含む高温環境での耐
食性は不十分である。[0004] In particular, the present inventors have clarified for the first time that the above-mentioned co-metallic welding material has a serious problem that extremely small cracks are generated in the weld metal during multi-layer welding. Furthermore, joint performance such as high-temperature strength is considered, but corrosion resistance in high-temperature environments containing chlorides and sulfates is insufficient.
【０００５】[0005]
【発明が解決しようとする課題】本発明の目的は、多層
溶接時の微小割れを完全に抑制した、塩化物や硫化物を
含む高温環境において耐食性に優れた、高温オーステナ
イトステンレス鋼用の溶接材料および溶接継手を提供す
ることにある。SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide a welding material for high-temperature austenitic stainless steel which completely suppresses micro cracks during multi-layer welding and has excellent corrosion resistance in high-temperature environments containing chlorides and sulfides. And a welded joint.
【０００６】[0006]
【課題を解決するための手段】上記のとおり、本発明者
はNi、Crの含有率を本発明の限定範囲内にした場合、多
層溶接金属中に非常に微細な割れが発生しやすいことを
見出した。この割れについて解析した結果、この微小割
れは粒界に沿う割れであり、多層溶接時に微小割れが発
生する結晶粒界には、(a)Si、Cが顕著に濃化している部
分、および(b)Sが顕著に濃化している部分の２つの部分
があることが分かった。破面観察の結果、(a)Si、Cが濃
化している部分では溶融の痕が認められ、また、(b)Sが
濃化している部分では塑性変形をほとんど伴わない粒界
破断が生じている様子が観察された。したがって、(a)
の部分の割れは、次パスの熱サイクル時に、結晶粒界に
偏析したSi、CがマトリックスのFeと低融点の共晶化合
物を生成し、液化し、開口することによって生じた割れ
である。また、(b)の部分では、Sが粒界に偏析し粒界結
合力が小さくなり、その部分が熱応力により開口した再
熱割れである。以後の説明において、上記の「微小割
れ」を、原則として「再熱割れ」という。As described above, the present inventor has found that when the contents of Ni and Cr are within the limits of the present invention, very fine cracks are likely to occur in the multilayer weld metal. I found it. As a result of analyzing the cracks, the microcracks are cracks along the grain boundaries. (A) In the grain boundaries where the microcracks occur during multi-layer welding, (a) the portions where Si and C are significantly concentrated, and ( b) It was found that there were two portions where S was significantly concentrated. As a result of the fracture surface observation, traces of melting were observed in the (a) Si and C enriched areas, and (b) grain boundary fractures with almost no plastic deformation occurred in the (B) S enriched areas Was observed. Therefore, (a)
Is a crack generated when Si and C segregated at the crystal grain boundary generate a low melting point eutectic compound with Fe in the matrix during the next pass thermal cycle, liquefy, and open. Further, in the portion (b), S segregates at the grain boundary and the grain boundary bonding force is reduced, and the portion is a reheat crack opened by thermal stress. In the following description, the above-mentioned "micro crack" is in principle called "reheat crack".
【０００７】本発明者らは、この割れの防止に、Nbの添
加が非常に効果的であることを見出した。すなわち、Nb
の添加により、(a)の部分のSi、Cの偏析に起因した割れ
に対しては、NbはCをNbCとして固定し、再熱割れ発生の
原因を取り除き、割れ発生を防止する。さらに、NbはS
の濃化に起因する割れに対しても、Sを硫酸化物Nb(S、
O)として固定し、粒界結合力の低下を防ぎ、再熱割れを
防止する。そこで、再熱割れ防止に必要なNbとSiの関係
およびNbとSの関係について調査した。[0007] The present inventors have found that the addition of Nb is very effective in preventing this cracking. That is, Nb
With the addition of N, Nb fixes C as NbC against cracks caused by the segregation of Si and C in the portion (a), eliminates the cause of reheat cracking, and prevents cracking. Furthermore, Nb is S
S for sulfates Nb (S,
Fixed as O) to prevent a decrease in grain boundary bonding force and prevent reheat cracking. Therefore, the relationship between Nb and Si and the relationship between Nb and S necessary for preventing reheat cracking were investigated.
【０００８】図１は、再熱割れの生じるSiとNbの範囲を
示す。また、図２は、再熱割れの生じるSとNbの範囲を
示す。Nbの他に、Zr、Hf、TaもNbと同様にC、Si、およ
びSの固定の効果があり、再熱割れの防止に有効である
ことも確認した。FIG. 1 shows the range of Si and Nb in which reheat cracking occurs. FIG. 2 shows the ranges of S and Nb where reheat cracking occurs. In addition to Nb, Zr, Hf, and Ta also have the effect of fixing C, Si, and S similarly to Nb, and have been confirmed to be effective in preventing reheat cracking.
【０００９】本発明は上記の事項に基づき各種の溶接方
法についてその効果を確認して完成されたもので、その
要旨は、下記の耐再熱割れ性に優れたオ−ステナイト鋼
用溶接材料、および溶接継手にある。The present invention has been completed by confirming the effects of various welding methods based on the above matters, and the gist of the present invention is to provide the following welding material for austenitic steel having excellent reheat crack resistance. And welded joints.
【００１０】（１）重量％で、C：0.08%以下、Mn：2%以
下、Ni：30〜45%、Cr：25〜35%、Mo：0.2〜1.8%、Nb：
0.5〜3.5%、N：0.1〜0.35%、Al：0.01%以下、O(酸素)：
0.01%以下、B：0〜0.01%、Ca：0〜0.01%、Mg：0〜0.01
%、Zr:0〜0.02%、Hf:0〜0.02%、およびTa:0〜0.02%を含
み、不純物としてのP：0.01%以下であり、さらにSiとNb
とが式の関係を満たし、かつNbと不純物としてのSと
が式の関係を満足する鋼である溶接材料。(1) C: 0.08% or less, Mn: 2% or less, Ni: 30 to 45%, Cr: 25 to 35%, Mo: 0.2 to 1.8%, Nb:
0.5 to 3.5%, N: 0.1 to 0.35%, Al: 0.01% or less, O (oxygen):
0.01% or less, B: 0 to 0.01%, Ca: 0 to 0.01%, Mg: 0 to 0.01
%, Zr: 0 to 0.02%, Hf: 0 to 0.02%, and Ta: 0 to 0.02%, P as an impurity is 0.01% or less, and furthermore, Si and Nb
Is a steel which satisfies the relationship of the formula, and Nb and S as impurities are steels satisfying the relationship of the formula.
【００１１】： Si≦0.12・Nb＋0.04 ： S≦0.001・Nb＋0.0015 （２）母材と溶接金属を備える溶接継手であって、重量
％で、母材はNi:25〜45%、および Cr:20〜35%を含むオ
ーステナイト鋼であり、溶接金属はC：0.08%以下、Mn：
2%以下、Ni：30〜45%、Cr：25〜35%、Mo：0.2〜1.8%、N
b：0.3〜3.5%、N：0.1〜0.35%、Al：0.05%以下、O(酸
素)：0.08%以下、B：0〜0.01%、Ca：0〜0.01%、Mg：0〜
0.01%、Zr:0〜0.02%、Hf:0〜0.02%、およびTa:0〜0.02
%、を含み、かつ不純物としてのP：0.02%以下であり、
さらにSiとNbとが上記式の関係を満たし、かつNbと不
純物としてのSが上記式の関係を満足する鋼である溶
接継手。[0011]: Si ≦ 0.12 · Nb + 0.04: S ≦ 0.001 · Nb + 0.0015 (2) A welded joint including a base material and a weld metal, and the base material is Ni: 25 to 45% by weight%, and Cr: Austenitic steel containing 20-35%, weld metal: C: 0.08% or less, Mn:
2% or less, Ni: 30-45%, Cr: 25-35%, Mo: 0.2-1.8%, N
b: 0.3 to 3.5%, N: 0.1 to 0.35%, Al: 0.05% or less, O (oxygen): 0.08% or less, B: 0 to 0.01%, Ca: 0 to 0.01%, Mg: 0 to
0.01%, Zr: 0-0.02%, Hf: 0-0.02%, and Ta: 0-0.02
%, And P as an impurity is 0.02% or less,
Further, a welded joint made of steel in which Si and Nb satisfy the relationship of the above formula and Nb and S as an impurity satisfy the relationship of the above formula.
【００１２】上記（１）において、この溶接材料は、通
常の溶接方法に適用可能である。例えば、ガスシ−ルド
ア−ク溶接（GMAW:Gas Metal Arc Welding、GTAW:Gas T
ungsten Arc Welding）用のワイヤ、フラックスを塗布
した被覆ア−ク溶接（SMAW）材料（手溶接棒）の芯線、
フラックス中で行うサブマージアーク溶接（SAW）する
ワイヤ等どのような溶接法の溶接材料であってもよい。
要するに、これら溶接材料の鋼の部分の化学組成が、上
記（１）の発明の限定範囲内に入れば本発明の対象とな
る。また、溶接金属についても、溶接方法によらず、溶
接金属の成分が（２）の限定範囲内にあれば、本発明の
対象となる。（２）における母材は、CrとNiを上記の範
囲に含むオーステナイト系ステンレス鋼であれば、どの
ような形状のものも該当する。例えば、管、板、棒等が
該当する。In the above (1), this welding material is applicable to a normal welding method. For example, gas shielded arc welding (GMAW: Gas Metal Arc Welding, GTAW: Gas T
ungsten Arc Welding wire, flux coated core arc welding (SMAW) material (hand welding rod),
A welding material of any welding method such as a wire for submerged arc welding (SAW) performed in a flux may be used.
In short, if the chemical composition of the steel portion of these welding materials falls within the limited range of the invention of the above (1), it is an object of the present invention. In addition, the present invention is also applicable to a weld metal as long as the component of the weld metal is within the limited range of (2) regardless of the welding method. The base material in (2) corresponds to any shape of austenitic stainless steel containing Cr and Ni in the above range. For example, a pipe, a plate, a rod, or the like is applicable.
【００１３】[0013]
【発明の実施の形態】次に本発明の溶接材料および溶接
金属の化学組成の限定理由について述べる。Al、O(酸
素)、Nbおよび不純物としてのP以外の他の元素は、母材
が溶接材料の化学組成と類似しているために、溶接金属
の化学組成は溶接材料とほとんど同じ組成となる。した
がって、とくに必要でない場合は、溶接材料と溶接金属
とを区別することなく以後の説明を行う。また、以後の
説明において、合金元素の含有率の「％」は「重量％」
を意味する。Next, the reasons for limiting the chemical composition of the welding material and the welding metal of the present invention will be described. For Al, O (oxygen), Nb, and other elements other than P as impurities, the chemical composition of the weld metal is almost the same as the weld material because the base material is similar to the chemical composition of the weld material. . Therefore, when it is not particularly necessary, the following description will be made without distinguishing between the welding material and the welding metal. In the following description, “%” of the content of the alloy element is “% by weight”.
Means
【００１４】１．溶接材料および溶接金属 C：0.08%以下 Cは、マトリックスであるオ−ステナイトを安定にする
元素である。しかし、過剰に含むと溶接熱影響部でCr炭
窒化物を生成し、耐食性の劣化を招くとともに強度低下
の原因となる。さらに、粒界に偏析したSiおよびFeと反
応し、低融点化合物を生成し、再熱割れ感受性を増大さ
せる。そのため、0.08%以下とする。さらに望ましい上
限は0.05%である。また、極度の低減は製鋼コストの大
幅な高騰を招くため、下限はとくに設けないが、望まし
くは0.005%程度とする。1. Welding material and weld metal C: 0.08% or less C is an element that stabilizes austenite as a matrix. However, if it is contained excessively, Cr carbonitride is formed in the heat affected zone, causing deterioration of corrosion resistance and a reduction in strength. In addition, it reacts with Si and Fe segregated at the grain boundaries to generate low melting point compounds and increase reheat cracking susceptibility. Therefore, it is set to 0.08% or less. A more desirable upper limit is 0.05%. Further, the extreme reduction leads to a sharp rise in steelmaking costs, so a lower limit is not particularly set, but is desirably about 0.005%.
【００１５】Mn：2%以下 Mnは脱酸剤として添加され、溶接金属中のNの活量を下
げることによりア−ク雰囲気中からのNの飛散を抑制
し、強度の確保に寄与する。しかし、過剰に含むと、脆
化を招くため2%以下とする。好ましい上限は1.5%であ
る。下限は特に設けないが、上述の効果を得るためには
0.05%以上であることが望ましい。Mn: 2% or less Mn is added as a deoxidizing agent, and reduces the activity of N in the weld metal, thereby suppressing the scattering of N from the arc atmosphere and contributing to securing the strength. However, if contained excessively, embrittlement is caused, so the content is set to 2% or less. A preferred upper limit is 1.5%. Although there is no particular lower limit, in order to obtain the above effects,
Desirably, it is 0.05% or more.
【００１６】Ni：30〜45% Niはオーステナイト相を安定化させるために必須の元素
であるとともに、塩化物および硫酸塩を含んだ環境中で
の耐食性を確保するために必須の元素である。上記の環
境での高温耐食性を確保するためには、含有率は30%以
上が必要である。しかし、Niは高価な元素であるため多
量の添加はコストの増大を招き、かつワイヤ製造時に表
面性状が劣化し歩留りが低下するので上限は45%とす
る。Ni: 30 to 45% Ni is an essential element for stabilizing the austenite phase, and is also an essential element for ensuring corrosion resistance in an environment containing chlorides and sulfates. In order to ensure high-temperature corrosion resistance in the above environment, the content rate is required to be 30% or more. However, since Ni is an expensive element, adding a large amount of it causes an increase in cost, and furthermore, the surface properties are deteriorated and the yield is reduced during wire production, so the upper limit is made 45%.
【００１７】Cr：25〜35% Crは高温での耐酸化性および耐食性の確保のためには必
須の元素である。十分な、耐酸化性および耐食性を満足
するためには25%以上が必要である。一方、過剰な含有
率は高温での組織の安定性を劣化させ、強度の低下を招
くので、上限は35%とする。Cr: 25-35% Cr is an essential element for ensuring oxidation resistance and corrosion resistance at high temperatures. 25% or more is necessary to satisfy sufficient oxidation resistance and corrosion resistance. On the other hand, an excessive content degrades the stability of the structure at high temperatures and lowers the strength, so the upper limit is 35%.
【００１８】Mo：0.2〜1.8% Moはマトリックスに固溶し、高温強度を高める効果があ
る。そのためには0.2%以上が必要である。しかし、1.8%
程度でその効果が飽和するばかりか、逆に、MoCを生成
し、耐食性劣化の原因となるので、上限は1.8%とする。
さらに、0.4〜1.5%の範囲にあるのが望ましい。Mo: 0.2-1.8% Mo forms a solid solution in the matrix and has the effect of increasing the high-temperature strength. For that purpose, 0.2% or more is required. But 1.8%
Not only does this effect saturate to the extent that MoC is generated, but also MoC is generated, which causes deterioration of corrosion resistance. Therefore, the upper limit is made 1.8%.
Further, it is desirably in the range of 0.4 to 1.5%.
【００１９】Nb：溶接ワイヤ 0.5〜3.5%、溶接金属
0.3〜3.5% Nbは炭窒化物を形成して粒内および粒界に微細析出する
ことにより高温強度の向上に寄与する。さらに、C、Sを
固定し、多層溶接時の再熱割れを防止する。その効果を
発揮するためには、溶接金属に0.3%以上含むことが必要
であり、さらに、後述のSi、S含有率との関係式およ
び式を満足する必要がある。しかし、過剰に含むとNb
Cの粗大化を招き、靱性の劣化を招くとともに清浄度を
も劣化させる。そのため、上限は3.5%とする。さらに望
ましくは3%以下とする。溶接ワイヤ中には0.5%以上含め
ば、Nbを含まないかNb含有率の低い母材との希釈を考慮
しても上述の溶接金属での下限0.3%を満足しうる。その
ため、溶接材料の下限は0.5%とする。Nb: welding wire 0.5-3.5%, welding metal
0.3 to 3.5% Nb contributes to the improvement of high-temperature strength by forming carbonitride and precipitating finely in grains and at grain boundaries. Further, C and S are fixed to prevent reheat cracking during multi-layer welding. In order to exhibit the effect, it is necessary that the content of the weld metal is 0.3% or more, and further, it is necessary to satisfy a relational expression with the Si and S contents described later and the expression. However, Nb
It causes the coarsening of C, the deterioration of toughness, and the deterioration of cleanliness. Therefore, the upper limit is 3.5%. More preferably, it is set to 3% or less. If 0.5% or more is contained in the welding wire, the lower limit of 0.3% for the above-mentioned weld metal can be satisfied even when the dilution with a base material containing no Nb or having a low Nb content is taken into consideration. Therefore, the lower limit of the welding material is 0.5%.
【００２０】N：0.1〜0.35% Nは高温強度を確保するのに必須の元素である。すなわ
ち、Nは凝固組織のマトリックスに固溶してこれを強化
するとともに一部は窒化物として析出し、析出強化に寄
与する。しかし、過剰に含むと高温使用中に多量の炭窒
化物が析出するため脆化の原因となる。さらに、溶接時
にブロ−ホ−ル生成の原因となる。そのため0.1〜0.35%
とする。望ましい範囲は0.15〜0.3%である。N: 0.1 to 0.35% N is an essential element for ensuring high-temperature strength. That is, N solid-dissolves in the matrix of the solidified structure and strengthens it, and partly precipitates as nitrides, contributing to precipitation strengthening. However, if it is contained excessively, a large amount of carbonitride precipitates during use at a high temperature, which causes embrittlement. Furthermore, it causes blowhole formation during welding. Therefore 0.1-0.35%
And A desirable range is 0.15 to 0.3%.
【００２１】Al：溶接ワイヤ中 0.01%以下、溶接金属
中 0.05%以下 Alは脱酸剤として添加されるが、溶接ワイヤ中への多量
の添加はスラグの生成を促し、溶接金属の湯流れおよび
溶接ビードの均一性を劣化させ、溶接施工性を著しく低
下させる。さらに、裏波形成する溶接条件領域を狭くす
るため溶接ワイヤ中のAlは0.01%以下とする必要があ
る。しかし、溶接金属中には被覆ア−ク溶接や潜弧溶接
時にはフラックス成分から、Alが混入し、Al量が増加す
る。しかし、溶接金属中に0.05%を超えるAlが歩留まる
と清浄度が著しく劣化し、脆化を招く。そのため、溶接
金属中のAl含有率は0.05%以下とする必要がある。Al: 0.01% or less in the welding wire, 0.05% or less in the welding metal Al is added as a deoxidizing agent, but a large amount of addition to the welding wire promotes slag formation, and the flow of the molten metal and It degrades the uniformity of the weld bead and significantly reduces welding workability. Further, Al in the welding wire needs to be 0.01% or less in order to narrow a welding condition region in which a backwash is formed. However, Al is mixed into the weld metal from the flux component at the time of coating arc welding or latent arc welding, and the Al content increases. However, if the Al content exceeds 0.05% in the weld metal, the cleanliness deteriorates remarkably, resulting in embrittlement. Therefore, the Al content in the weld metal needs to be 0.05% or less.
【００２２】O(酸素)：溶接ワイヤ中 0.01%以下、溶接
金属中 0.08%以下 溶接ワイヤにO(酸素)を過度に含むとスラグの生成を助
長し、湯流れを劣化させ溶接施工性を低下させるため溶
接ワイヤ中のOは0.01%以下とする必要がある。一方、溶
接金属中にはシ−ルドガスやフラックス成分からOが混
入し、O含有率は高くなり、組織の微細化等に有効に作
用する。しかし、溶接金属中の含有率が0.08%を超える
と清浄度が著しく劣化し、脆化を招く。そのため、溶接
金属中のOは0.08%以下とする必要がある。下限はとくに
設けないが、極端に下げるためにコストアップとなるこ
とは許容されないので、下限0.005%程度とすることが望
ましい。O (oxygen): 0.01% or less in the welding wire, 0.08% or less in the welding metal When O (oxygen) is excessively contained in the welding wire, it promotes the generation of slag, deteriorates the flow of molten metal, and reduces welding workability. Therefore, O in the welding wire needs to be 0.01% or less. On the other hand, O is mixed into the weld metal from a shield gas or a flux component, and the O content is increased, which effectively acts on the refinement of the structure. However, if the content in the weld metal exceeds 0.08%, the cleanliness deteriorates remarkably, resulting in embrittlement. Therefore, O in the weld metal needs to be 0.08% or less. The lower limit is not particularly set, but it is not allowed to increase the cost due to the extreme lowering. Therefore, the lower limit is preferably set to about 0.005%.
【００２３】B：0〜0.01% 粒界に偏析してクリープ強度の向上に寄与するため添加
しても良い。ただし、過剰添加は溶接時の凝固割れを助
長するため添加する場合、上限は0.01%とする。さらに
望ましい上限は0.008%である。B: 0-0.01% It may be added because it segregates at grain boundaries and contributes to improvement of creep strength. However, when excessive addition promotes solidification cracking during welding, the upper limit is 0.01% when added. A more desirable upper limit is 0.008%.
【００２４】Ca：0〜0.01% 線材加工時の熱間加工性の改善に有効であるため、添加
してもよい。しかし、過剰の添加は溶接金属中の介在物
を増加させ、清浄度を劣化させるため0.01%以下とす
る。Ca: 0-0.01% It may be added because it is effective for improving hot workability during wire processing. However, excessive addition increases the inclusions in the weld metal and degrades cleanliness, so the content is made 0.01% or less.
【００２５】Mg：0〜0.01% Caと同様に線材加工時の熱間加工性の改善に有効である
ため、添加してもよい。しかし、過剰の添加は溶接金属
中の介在物を増加させ、清浄度を劣化させるため0.01%
以下とする。Mg: 0 to 0.01% Like Ca, it is effective for improving hot workability in wire processing and may be added. However, excessive addition increases the inclusions in the weld metal and degrades cleanliness by 0.01%.
The following is assumed.
【００２６】Zr：0〜0.02% Hf：0〜0.02% Ta：0〜0.02% Zr、Hf、TaはNbを含むかぎり含まなくてもよい。これら
の元素はNbと同様、C、Sを固定し、再熱割れ感受性の低
減に効果があるので再熱割れの危険性が非常に高い場合
には、これらの元素のいずれかを添加する。これらの元
素は0.0005%未満では効果が小さいので、含む場合には
0.0005%以上とすることが望ましい。一方、0.02%を超え
ると炭化物が粗大化し、脆化を招くため、0.02%以下と
する。Zr: 0 to 0.02% Hf: 0 to 0.02% Ta: 0 to 0.02% Zr, Hf and Ta may not be contained as long as they contain Nb. These elements, like Nb, fix C and S and are effective in reducing the susceptibility to reheat cracking. Therefore, if the risk of reheat cracking is extremely high, one of these elements is added. If these elements are less than 0.0005%, the effect is small.
Desirably, it is 0.0005% or more. On the other hand, if it exceeds 0.02%, carbides become coarse and embrittlement is caused, so the content is made 0.02% or less.
【００２７】P：溶接ワイヤ中 0.01%以下、溶接金属中
0.02%以下 溶接の際、溶接金属の凝固時に最終凝固部の融点を低下
させ、高温割れを発生させる。そのため、溶接金属中の
Pは0.02%以下とする必要がある。また、溶接ワイヤ中の
Pは母材との希釈を考慮しても0.01%以下とすれば、上述
の溶接金属中のPを満足しうると考えられるため、0.01%
以下とする。P: 0.01% or less in welding wire, in welding metal
0.02% or less During welding, the solidification of the weld metal lowers the melting point of the final solidified part, causing hot cracking. Therefore, in the weld metal
P must be 0.02% or less. Also, in the welding wire
P is considered to be able to satisfy the above-mentioned P in the weld metal if it is 0.01% or less even if the dilution with the base material is considered, so 0.01%
The following is assumed.
【００２８】Si：Si≦0.12・Nb＋0.04 Siは脱酸剤として添加されるが、溶接金属の凝固時に粒
界に偏析し、CおよびFeと反応し、低融点の化合物を生
成し、多層溶接時の再熱割れの原因となる。上述のよう
にNbはCを固定し、再熱割れ感受性を低減させるが、十
分な耐再熱割れ性を確保するためには、SiをNbとの関係
で（0.12・Nb＋0.04）%以下とする必要がある。過度の低
減は製造コストの増大を招くので、特に下限は設けない
が、望ましくは0.01%以上である。Si: Si ≦ 0.12 · Nb + 0.04 Si is added as a deoxidizing agent, but segregates at the grain boundary during solidification of the weld metal, reacts with C and Fe to form a low melting point compound, It causes reheat cracking during welding. As described above, Nb fixes C and reduces susceptibility to reheat cracking, but in order to ensure sufficient resistance to reheat cracking, Si should be less than (0.12 · Nb + 0.04)% in relation to Nb. It is necessary to Since an excessive reduction leads to an increase in manufacturing cost, no lower limit is set, but it is preferably 0.01% or more.
【００２９】S：S≦0.001・Nb＋0.0015 SはPと同様、不可避不純物であり、溶接の際、溶接金属
の凝固時に低融点の共晶物を形成し、高温割れを発生さ
せるとともに、粒界に偏析し、粒界固着力を低下させ、
再熱割れ発生の原因となる。上述のようにNbはSを固定
し、再熱割れ感受性を低減させるが、十分な効果を発揮
するためにはSを（0.001・Nb＋0.0015）%以下とする必要
がある。S: S ≦ 0.001 · Nb + 0.0015 S, like P, is an unavoidable impurity and forms a low-melting eutectic during solidification of the weld metal during welding, causing hot cracking and Segregates in the grain boundaries, lowers the grain boundary adhesion,
It causes reheat cracking. As described above, Nb fixes S and reduces the susceptibility to reheat cracking. However, in order to exhibit a sufficient effect, it is necessary to set S to (0.001 · Nb + 0.0015)% or less.
【００３０】２．母材 母材は高温強度と高温での塩化物と硫化物への耐食性を
確保するために、Ni:25〜45%、Cr:20〜35%を含む。Niが
25%未満の場合、高温での塩化物や硫化物の耐食性が十
分ではなく、45%を超えると表面性状が劣化するので45%
以下とする。Crは 20%未満では耐食性が十分確保でき
ず、一方35%を超えると熱間加工ができないので20〜35%
とする。2. Base material The base material contains Ni: 25-45% and Cr: 20-35% to ensure high-temperature strength and corrosion resistance to chlorides and sulfides at high temperatures. Ni
If it is less than 25%, the corrosion resistance of chlorides and sulfides at high temperatures is not sufficient, and if it exceeds 45%, the surface properties deteriorate, so 45%
The following is assumed. If Cr is less than 20%, sufficient corrosion resistance cannot be secured, while if it exceeds 35%, hot working cannot be performed, so 20-35%
And
【００３１】その他の合金元素については、例えばつぎ
の範囲にあることが耐食性、再熱割れ、および高温強度
確保の上から望ましい。例えば、C:0.05%以下、Si:0.5%
以下、Mn:0.8%以下、Mo:0.3〜1.5%、N:0.08〜0.4%を含
み残余実質Fe等である。The other alloying elements are desirably in the following ranges, for example, from the viewpoint of ensuring corrosion resistance, reheat cracking, and high-temperature strength. For example, C: 0.05% or less, Si: 0.5%
Hereinafter, it is Mn: 0.8% or less, Mo: 0.3 to 1.5%, N: 0.08 to 0.4%, and it is the remaining real Fe and the like.
【００３２】[0032]
【実施例】つぎに本発明の効果を実施例により説明す
る。EXAMPLES Next, the effects of the present invention will be described with reference to examples.
【００３３】表１は、供試材に用いた母材である厚鋼板
の化学組成を示す。Table 1 shows the chemical composition of the thick steel plate as the base metal used for the test material.
【００３４】[0034]
【表１】 [Table 1]
【００３５】この母材は600℃での103時間クリープ強度
が28kgf/mm2のオ−ステナイト系ステンレス厚鋼板（板
厚：12mm）である。It is: austenitic stainless steel plates (12 mm thickness) - [0035] The preform 10 3 hours creep strength at 600 ° C. is 28 kgf / mm 2 o.
【００３６】表２は使用した１６種類の溶接材料（溶接
ワイヤ）の化学組成を示す。Table 2 shows the chemical compositions of the 16 types of welding materials (welding wires) used.
【００３７】[0037]
【表２】 [Table 2]
【００３８】これらのワイヤは、すべて実験室にて溶製
後、外径1.2mmの線材に加工したものである。溶接材料
符号A11については、4.0mm径の溶接ワイヤに金属炭酸
塩、金属弗化物、Si化合物、Ti化合物および金属粉末か
らなる被覆材を塗布した被覆ア−ク溶接棒である。All of these wires were produced in a laboratory and then processed into a wire rod having an outer diameter of 1.2 mm. The welding material code A11 is a coated arc welding rod obtained by applying a coating material composed of a metal carbonate, a metal fluoride, a Si compound, a Ti compound and a metal powder to a 4.0 mm diameter welding wire.
【００３９】再熱割れ試験は、つぎの方法で行った。図
３に示した開先加工を施した母材を図４に示すように拘
束溶接し、この開先に対して供試溶接材料を用いてティ
グ溶接(GTAW)、ミグ溶接(GMAW)、または被覆ア−ク溶接
(SMAW)により多層溶接を行った。溶接の際には、被溶接
材(母材)は拘束板に拘束されているために溶接による熱
応力が生じて割れが発生し易い。溶接施工後に溶接金属
部を中央部に有するミクロ試験片、側曲げ試験片、およ
びクリープ試験片を採取し試験に供した。The reheat cracking test was performed by the following method. The base material subjected to the groove processing shown in FIG. 3 is subjected to constraint welding as shown in FIG. 4, and TIG welding (GTAW), MIG welding (GMAW), or Covered arc welding
Multi-layer welding was performed by (SMAW). At the time of welding, since the material to be welded (base material) is restrained by the restraining plate, thermal stress is generated by welding and cracks are easily generated. After welding, a micro test piece, a side bending test piece, and a creep test piece having a weld metal portion at the center were sampled and subjected to a test.
【００４０】図５は側曲げ試験片を、また図６はクリー
プ試験片を示す。また、溶接部を含む耐食性試験片を採
取し、高温での塩化物と硫酸塩中の耐食性試験に供し
た。耐食性試験片は溶接部を中央部にした厚さ3mm、幅2
0mm、長さ30mmの試験片とした。この試験片に18.5%のCl
を含む塩化物と硫酸塩の灰を付着させ550℃で20時間加
熱して、腐食減量を調査した。FIG. 5 shows a side bending test piece, and FIG. 6 shows a creep test piece. Further, a corrosion resistance test piece including a welded portion was collected and subjected to a corrosion resistance test in chloride and sulfate at a high temperature. The corrosion resistance test piece was 3 mm thick and 2 width centered on the weld.
A test piece having a length of 0 mm and a length of 30 mm was used. 18.5% Cl
The ash of chloride and sulfate containing was adhered and heated at 550 ° C for 20 hours to investigate the corrosion weight loss.
【００４１】ミクロ試験片は、バフ研磨後、光学顕微鏡
にて400倍の倍率にて溶接金属部を全て観察し、再熱割
れ発生の有無を観察した。また、側曲げ試験は板厚の２
倍の曲げ半径で180゜曲げを行い、溶接金属での凝固割れ
の有無を調べた。そして、再熱割れおよび凝固割れのな
いものを合格とした。そして、再熱割れおよび側曲げ試
験にて欠陥のなかった継手についてのみクリ−プ試験お
よび耐食性試験を行った。クリープ試験は母材の破断時
間が1000時間となる温度600℃、応力28kgf/mm2の条件で
試験を行い、溶接金属の破断時間を調査した。判定は、
母材の破断時間の80%を良否判定の基準とし、それに達
しないものをクリープ強度不足とした。また、耐食性試
験では、550℃の塩化物と硫酸塩中で20時間の試験を行
い、腐食減量を測定し、母材と同等であるか否かで判断
した。After buffing the micro test piece, the entire weld metal portion was observed with an optical microscope at a magnification of 400 times, and the occurrence of reheat cracking was observed. In addition, the side bending test was performed with a thickness of 2
A 180 ° bend was performed at twice the bending radius, and the presence of solidification cracks in the weld metal was examined. Those having no reheat crack and no solidification crack were accepted. Then, a creep test and a corrosion resistance test were performed only on the joint having no defect in the reheat cracking and the side bending test. In the creep test, a test was conducted under the conditions of a temperature of 600 ° C. and a stress of 28 kgf / mm 2 , at which the fracture time of the base material becomes 1000 hours, and the fracture time of the weld metal was investigated. The judgment is
80% of the breaking time of the base material was used as a criterion for judging pass / fail, and those that did not reach 80% were regarded as insufficient creep strength. In the corrosion resistance test, a test was performed for 20 hours in chlorides and sulfates at 550 ° C., and the weight loss due to corrosion was measured, and it was determined whether or not the corrosion resistance was equivalent to that of the base material.
【００４２】表３は本検討で得られた溶接金属の化学分
析結果を示す。また、表４は耐再熱割れ性能および継手
性能の評価結果を示したものである。Table 3 shows the results of chemical analysis of the weld metal obtained in this study. Table 4 shows the evaluation results of the reheat cracking resistance and the joint performance.
【００４３】[0043]
【表３】 [Table 3]
【００４４】[0044]
【表４】 [Table 4]
【００４５】本発明の限定範囲外の溶接材料B1およびB3
を用いた場合、溶接材料中のSiとNbと式を満足しない
ため、得られた溶接継手WB1およびWB5の溶接金属のSiと
Nbもに式を満足せず、溶接金属に再熱割れが発生し
た。また、溶接材料B2を使用した場合、溶接材料中のSi
とNbが式を満たさず、かつSとNbが式を満足しない
ため、得られた溶接継手WB2〜WB4の溶接金属のSiとNbは
式、またSとNbは式を満足しなかったために、溶接
金属内に極めて多数の再熱割れが発生した。また、側曲
げ試験では、再熱割れがつながり、大きな欠陥として現
れた。また、比較例WB4については上記の式以外にCとNb
自体も耐食性や強度の確保に必要な範囲を外れていた。
比較例WB6はSとNbの関係が式を満足しない溶接材料B4
を使用したため、得られた溶接継手WB6の溶接金属のSと
Nbも式を満足せず、溶接金属内に再熱割れが発生し
た。また、溶接材料B5はCが上限を超えるたため、得ら
れた溶接継手WB7の溶接金属のCも上限を超えていたた
め、強度、耐食性が不足した。Welding materials B1 and B3 outside the scope of the invention
In the case of using, the formulas of Si and Nb in the welding material are not satisfied.
Nb did not satisfy the formula, and reheat cracking occurred in the weld metal. Also, when welding material B2 is used, Si
And Nb do not satisfy the formula, and S and Nb do not satisfy the formula.Si, the obtained welded joints WB2 to WB4 have Si and Nb formulas, and S and Nb do not satisfy the formulas. A very large number of reheat cracks occurred in the weld metal. Further, in the side bending test, reheat cracks were connected and appeared as a large defect. Further, for Comparative Example WB4, C and Nb
The material itself was out of the range necessary for ensuring corrosion resistance and strength.
Comparative Example WB6 is a welding material B4 in which the relationship between S and Nb does not satisfy the equation.
Was used, the S and the weld metal of the obtained weld joint WB6
Nb also did not satisfy the equation, and reheat cracking occurred in the weld metal. Also, since the welding material B5 had a C exceeding the upper limit, the C of the obtained weld metal of the welded joint WB7 also exceeded the upper limit, and thus the strength and the corrosion resistance were insufficient.
【００４６】本発明例である溶接材料A1〜A11を使用
し、さらに、溶接金属の化学成分が、本発明の限定範囲
内の溶接継手WA1〜WA13は、優れた耐再熱割れ性、耐曲
げ性能、強度および耐食性を全て満足した。The welded joints WA1 to WA13 using the welding materials A1 to A11 of the present invention and having the chemical components of the weld metal within the limited range of the present invention have excellent reheat cracking resistance and bending resistance. The performance, strength and corrosion resistance were all satisfied.
【００４７】[0047]
【発明の効果】本発明の溶接材料および溶接継手は広範
な溶接条件下で優れた耐再熱割れ性、強度、塩化物や硫
化物を含む環境で高温耐食性を有するので、ごみ焼却廃
熱ボイラ等に広範に適用されることが期待される。EFFECTS OF THE INVENTION The welding material and the welded joint of the present invention have excellent reheat cracking resistance and strength under a wide range of welding conditions, and high-temperature corrosion resistance in an environment containing chlorides and sulfides. It is expected to be widely applied to such as.
【図１】再熱割れの発生しないＳｉとＮｂの含有率の範
囲を示す。FIG. 1 shows the range of the content of Si and Nb in which reheat cracking does not occur.
【図２】再熱割れの発生しないＳとＮｂの含有率の範囲
を示す。FIG. 2 shows the range of the contents of S and Nb in which reheat cracking does not occur.
【図３】再熱割れ試験の開先形状を示す。FIG. 3 shows a groove shape in a reheat cracking test.
【図４】再熱割れ試験の試験方法を示す。（ａ）は平面
図、（ｂ）は正面図である。FIG. 4 shows a test method of a reheat cracking test. (A) is a plan view and (b) is a front view.
【図５】側曲げ試験片形状を示す。（ａ）は正面図、
（ｂ）は側面図である。FIG. 5 shows the shape of a side bending test piece. (A) is a front view,
(B) is a side view.
【図６】クリープ試験片形状を示す。FIG. 6 shows a creep test piece shape.
１…再熱割れ試験の母材 ２…再熱割れ試験の拘束板 ３…再熱割れ試験の拘束ビード ４…再熱割れ試験の試験ビード（溶接金属） ５…溶接金属 DESCRIPTION OF SYMBOLS 1 ... Base material of reheat cracking test 2 ... Restraint plate of reheat cracking test 3 ... Constraint bead of reheat cracking test 4 ... Test bead (weld metal) of reheat cracking test 5 ... Weld metal
───────────────────────────────────────────────────── フロントページの続き (56)参考文献 特開 平５−69187（ＪＰ，Ａ) 特開 平７−60481（ＪＰ，Ａ) 特開 平７−136793（ＪＰ，Ａ) (58)調査した分野(Int.Cl.7，ＤＢ名) B23K 35/30 ────────────────────────────────────────────────── ─── Continuation of the front page (56) References JP-A-5-69187 (JP, A) JP-A-7-60481 (JP, A) JP-A-7-136793 (JP, A) (58) Field (Int.Cl. 7 , DB name) B23K 35/30
Claims (2)
i：30〜45%、Cr：25〜35%、Mo：0.2〜1.8%、Nb：0.5〜
3.5%、N：0.1〜0.35%、Al：0.01%以下、O(酸素)：0.01%
以下、B：0〜0.01%、Ca：0〜0.01%、Mg：0〜0.01%、Zr:
0〜0.02%、Hf:0〜0.02%、およびTa:0〜0.02%を含み、不
純物としてのP：0.01%以下であり、さらにSiとNbとが
式の関係を満たし、かつNbと不純物としてのSとが式
の関係を満足する鋼であることを特徴とする溶接材料。 ： Si≦0.12・Nb＋0.04 ： S≦0.001・Nb＋0.0015 式および式における元素記号はその元素の含有率
(重量%)を表す。(1) C: 0.08% or less, Mn: 2% or less, N
i: 30-45%, Cr: 25-35%, Mo: 0.2-1.8%, Nb: 0.5-
3.5%, N: 0.1 to 0.35%, Al: 0.01% or less, O (oxygen): 0.01%
Hereinafter, B: 0 to 0.01%, Ca: 0 to 0.01%, Mg: 0 to 0.01%, Zr:
0 to 0.02%, Hf: 0 to 0.02%, and Ta: 0 to 0.02%, P as an impurity is 0.01% or less, and Si and Nb satisfy the relationship of the formula, and Nb and an impurity A welding material, wherein S is steel satisfying the relationship of the formula. : Si ≤ 0.12 · Nb + 0.04: S ≤ 0.001 · Nb + 0.0015 The formula and the element symbol in the formula indicate the content of the element.
(% By weight).
て、重量％で、母材はNi:25〜45%、および Cr:20〜35%
を含むオーステナイト鋼であり、溶接金属はC：0.08%以
下、Mn：2%以下、Ni：30〜45%、Cr：25〜35%、Mo：0.2
〜1.8%、Nb：0.3〜3.5%、N：0.1〜0.35%、Al：0.05%以
下、O(酸素)：0.08%以下、B：0〜0.01%、Ca：0〜0.01
%、Mg：0〜0.01%、Zr:0〜0.02%、Hf:0〜0.02%、およびT
a:0〜0.02%、を含み、かつ不純物としてのP：0.02%以下
であり、さらにSiとNbとが式の関係を満たし、かつNb
と不純物としてのSとが式の関係を満足する鋼である
ことを特徴とする溶接継手。 ： Si≦0.12・Nb＋0.04 ： S≦0.001・Nb＋0.0015 式および式における元素記号はその元素の含有率
(重量%)を表す。2. A welded joint comprising a base material and a weld metal, wherein the base material is Ni: 25-45% and Cr: 20-35% by weight.
Austenitic steel containing C: 0.08% or less, Mn: 2% or less, Ni: 30 to 45%, Cr: 25 to 35%, Mo: 0.2
-1.8%, Nb: 0.3-3.5%, N: 0.1-0.35%, Al: 0.05% or less, O (oxygen): 0.08% or less, B: 0-0.01%, Ca: 0-0.01
%, Mg: 0-0.01%, Zr: 0-0.02%, Hf: 0-0.02%, and T
a: 0 to 0.02%, and P as an impurity is 0.02% or less, and furthermore, Si and Nb satisfy the relationship of the formula, and Nb
And S as impurities are steels satisfying the relationship of the formula. : Si ≤ 0.12 · Nb + 0.04: S ≤ 0.001 · Nb + 0.0015 The formula and the element symbol in the formula indicate the content of the element.
(% By weight).
Priority Applications (1)
| Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
|---|---|---|---|
| JP07908298A JP3329262B2 (en) | 1998-03-26 | 1998-03-26 | Welding materials and welded joints with excellent resistance to reheat cracking |
Applications Claiming Priority (1)
| Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
|---|---|---|---|
| JP07908298A JP3329262B2 (en) | 1998-03-26 | 1998-03-26 | Welding materials and welded joints with excellent resistance to reheat cracking |
Publications (2)
| Publication Number | Publication Date |
|---|---|
| JPH11277293A JPH11277293A (en) | 1999-10-12 |
| JP3329262B2 true JP3329262B2 (en) | 2002-09-30 |
Family
ID=13679978
Family Applications (1)
| Application Number | Title | Priority Date | Filing Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| JP07908298A Expired - Fee Related JP3329262B2 (en) | 1998-03-26 | 1998-03-26 | Welding materials and welded joints with excellent resistance to reheat cracking |
Country Status (1)
| Country | Link |
|---|---|
| JP (1) | JP3329262B2 (en) |
Cited By (3)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| JP2001107196A (en) * | 1999-10-07 | 2001-04-17 | Sumitomo Metal Ind Ltd | Austenitic steel welded joint excellent in weld cracking resistance and sulfuric acid corrosion resistance and the welding material |
| WO2004110695A1 (en) * | 2003-06-10 | 2004-12-23 | Sumitomo Metal Industries, Ltd. | Austenitic steel weld joint |
| WO2019098034A1 (en) | 2017-11-15 | 2019-05-23 | 日本製鉄株式会社 | Austenitic heat-resistant steel welding metal, welded joint, welding material for austenitic heat-resistant steel, and method for producing welded joint |
Families Citing this family (3)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| JP2001018089A (en) * | 1999-07-01 | 2001-01-23 | Sumitomo Metal Ind Ltd | Weld joint excellent in welding hot crack resistance |
| CN109070281A (en) * | 2016-03-31 | 2018-12-21 | 新日铁住金株式会社 | Welded structural element |
| ES2821173T3 (en) * | 2016-03-31 | 2021-04-23 | Nippon Steel Corp | Welded structural member |
-
1998
- 1998-03-26 JP JP07908298A patent/JP3329262B2/en not_active Expired - Fee Related
Cited By (4)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| JP2001107196A (en) * | 1999-10-07 | 2001-04-17 | Sumitomo Metal Ind Ltd | Austenitic steel welded joint excellent in weld cracking resistance and sulfuric acid corrosion resistance and the welding material |
| WO2004110695A1 (en) * | 2003-06-10 | 2004-12-23 | Sumitomo Metal Industries, Ltd. | Austenitic steel weld joint |
| WO2019098034A1 (en) | 2017-11-15 | 2019-05-23 | 日本製鉄株式会社 | Austenitic heat-resistant steel welding metal, welded joint, welding material for austenitic heat-resistant steel, and method for producing welded joint |
| KR20200065067A (en) | 2017-11-15 | 2020-06-08 | 닛폰세이테츠 가부시키가이샤 | Austenitic heat-resistant steel welded metal, welding joint, austenitic heat-resistant steel welding material, and method of manufacturing welded joint |
Also Published As
| Publication number | Publication date |
|---|---|
| JPH11277293A (en) | 1999-10-12 |
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