GB2371982A - Fire simulator and simulation method, featuring subsidiary fires fuelled by auxiliary fuel sources - Google Patents

Abstract

A fire simulator (fig. 14) has a fuel distribution means (fig. 12), and a fuel spill simulation area, over which flames may be fuelled for simulating a liquid fuel spill fire, such as that caused by an aircraft crash, and an auxiliary fuel supply (fig. 13) controllable independently of the fuel distribution means to simulate a secondary fire incident. Also disclosed is a method of fire simulation, in which a primary fire incident is fuelled by a fuel distribution means and a secondary fire incident is fuelled by an auxiliary fuel supply. The secondary fire may be a vapour fire. Both simulator and method may feature tertiary or more fires, each fuelled by a separately controllable fuel supply. The simulator may feature a grating 26 strong enough to support the weight of an airport fire engine and may further feature primary and secondary or more props, such as a mock-up of an aircraft 36 or a car / van 34 at various locations on the simulator.

Description

IMPROVEMENTS IN OR RELATING TO FIRE-FIGHTER TRAINING This invention relates to fire-fighter training. In particular, the invention relates to fire-fighter training installations such as those used to simulate fires in aviation scenarios, notably those of aircraft crash-landings.

The invention is not limited to aviation fire-fighting scenarios: it has application in simulators for other fire-fighting scenarios such as road or railway crashes that, like an aircraft crash-landing, can involve a substantial fuel spill. Indeed, preferred aspects of the invention involve simulators that can be adapted for a variety of different fire simulations not necessarily involving fuel spillage, including aircraft, collapsed buildings, road vehicles, trains and multiple-scenario incidents. Such simulators can also be used for'joint services'training, i. e. to train members of other emergency services, notably the police and paramedics, who must co-ordinate their work with fire-fighters from time to time.

Speed and skill are of the essence to all fire-fighters but fire-fighting in aviation scenarios, such as aircraft crash-landings, requires particularly fast response and skilled teamwork if loss of life is to be minimised. It is generally accepted that unless a burning crash-landed aircraft is accessed and the fire suppressed within two minutes of ignition, there is little hope of survival for those on board who may have survived the landing itself. As there is so little time for mistakes, this places extraordinary demands upon the skill of fire-fighters based at civil airports and military airbases.

There are corresponding demands upon the training of those fire-fighters, both as individuals and as a team, and hence upon the quality of the simulators on which those fire-fighters practice.

All substantial airports and airbases have dedicated fire tenders on standby for substantially immediate high-speed access to any crash site within the airport or airbase perimeter. Such tenders include vehicles known in the art as Major Airport Crashtrucks or MACs. Upon approaching the stricken aircraft, the practice is to drive the tenders close to the aircraft for the purpose of laying down fire-retardant foam and simultaneously gaining access to the fuselage of the aircraft to free its passengers and

crew. Indeed, recent practice in civil aviation fire-fighting is to drive a speciallyc

adapted tender right up to the aircraft for the purposes of puncturing its fuselage and injecting foam to protect people who may still be alive within.

Of course, accidents are characterised by their unpredictability and there is no way of knowing what difficulties fire-fighters will encounter when they reach a crash-landed aircraft. Their fire-fighting strategy must therefore be fully flexible. For example, the orientation of a burning aircraft with respect to the prevailing wind will have a considerable influence upon how the fire-fighters can approach the aircraft, suppress the fire and access the fuselage. Also, obstructions such as airport vehicles and broken-off engines, undercarriage components, wings or other parts of the aircraft can block access to the fuselage and will, in all likelihood, be on fire themselves. This is all quite apart from the different types of aircraft fire with which fire-fighters must contend: a fire confined to an engine or the undercarriage, for example, will require a quite different strategy to a fire involving spilled fuel.

The demands of fire-fighter training have led to the emergence of fire-fighting simulators in which fluid-fuelled flames are controlled to respond realistically to efforts by trainees to suppress them, in so-called'hot-fire'training. Aviation fire simulators are typically sited at an airfield or airbase, close to the fire-fighters'base at that facility. Flame generators can extend across the ground to simulate a fuel spill and can also be associated with mock-ups of above-ground structures associated with a fire scenario, such as a metal tube representing a section of aircraft fuselage which may have structures representing wings and engines to one or both sides, or a metal box representing an airport vehicle. In an analogy apt for acting-out scenarios, these mock-ups are referred to in fire-fighter training as'props'. That term will be used hereafter in this specification when referring to such mock-ups.

In early days, the fuel used in aviation fire simulators was liquid fuel such as oil or jet fuel but whilst their flames are realistic in appearance, those fuels give rise to levels of pollution that would be unacceptable today in frequently-used simulators that are often situated near urban settlements. Consequently, there has been a move toward gas-fuelled simulators and here the challenge is to maintain realism and controllability.

The aim of any fire simulator is to mimic the behaviour of a flame as it develops from ignition to eventual extinction. Spilled liquid fuel bums in a similar manner to the same fuel in an open-topped tank. Upon ignition, the height of the flames is initially quite small. However, the flames progressively grow larger and spread quickly across the full area of the spillage, eventually reaching a limiting height determined by the burning velocity of the flame. The flame grows during this phase because its radiant heat promotes the evaporation of liquid fuel. The increased rate of evaporation causes the flame to grow and this applies additional radiant heat to the remaining liquid fuel, increasing the rate of evaporation still further until the burning velocity of the flame prevents further flame growth.

Reference is made at this point to Figure 1, whose source is Drysdale, D. An Introduction to Fire Dynamics, 2nd edition, p. 12, published in 1998 by John Wiley & Sons. This is a schematic representation of a burning surface showing the heat and mass transfer processes involved in combustion. Importantly, it shows that in all fire occurrences, heat flux supplied by the flame (QF") transfers to the fuel surface. This heat transfer then increases the volatility of the fuel, hence adding to the conflagration.

Clearly, therefore, a key aspect of simulating a liquid fuel spill fire is to transmit

radiant beat to liquid fuel so as to promote the evaporation of that liquid fuel.

An example of a gas-fuelled fire-fighting simulator is disclosed in US Patent No.

5,055, 050 to Symtron Systems, Inc. , which comprises a diffuser such as a pan filled with a bed of dispersive medium such as water or gravel in which a burner system comprising a network of perforated pipes is submerged or buried. The pipes carry pressurised liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)-preferably propane-which is initially in its liquid phase but, with reducing pressure, flashes into the vapour phase within the pipes as it approaches the holes in the pipes. Thus, the pipes contain a mix of vaporising liquid propane and propane vapour. The gas issuing from the pipes diffuses as it rises through the dispersive medium and then bums on the surface of the dispersive medium. Two or more pans can be used side-by-side.

Whilst such use is not specifically disclosed in US Patent No. 5, 055, 050, it is well known in the art that the flames can be controlled to respond appropriately to the trainee fire-fighters'actions. For example, the fuel flow rate in different parts of the network of pipes or in different pans can be varied under central control via remote valves. It is also known that the pans can be used beside a prop such as a mock aircraft fuselage to lend further realism to training scenarios.

The simulator arrangement of US Patent No. 5,055, 050 enjoys certain benefits such as low cost and is suitable for many training requirements, but suffers some drawbacks and compromises. For example, the exposed bed of the dispersive medium lacks structural integrity and can bear no significant load. This means that props cannot be supported on the bed and that vehicles cannot drive over the bed without risking fracture of the pipes underneath the surface and so possibly causing a genuine conflagration. It is not even possible for fire-fighter trainees to walk safely on the bed of dispersive medium as they fight the simulated fire: the bed presents a trip hazard that could cause a trainee to stumble into the flames. Further, the dispersive medium can be disturbed by the powerful jets of water used by trainee fire-fighters to simulate foam; this disturbance can change the behaviour of the simulator in an unpredictable way.

Whilst the above problems have had some bearing upon the development of the present invention, the main focus of the invention has been to improve the adaptability of the simulator. Aside from developing fire-fighting skills applicable to different situations, the ability to vary training scenarios is important to maintain the trainees'interest and focus. Particular aims have been to enable changes in the orientation, composition or layout of the props, such as may be necessary to simulate different fire scenarios, including multi-incident scenarios, or to track changes in wind direction. In this respect, it will be noted that an exposed bed of dispersive medium prevents props being dragged across the bed to rearrange their position, if indeed this is possible within the confines imposed by the extent of the beds surrounding the location of the prop. Consequently, the props can only be lifted into place by a crane, which increases the cost and timescale of any changes.

The present invention seeks to solve these problems and to provide a simulator in which the realism of training is as great as can be allowed by the safety of those who operate and train on it.

For one aspect, the invention resides in a fire simulator having fuel distribution means for fuelling flames simulating a liquid fuel-spill fire, those flames extending across a fuel-spill simulation area, and an auxiliary fuel supply that is controllable independently of the fuel distribution means to simulate a secondary incident.

The auxiliary fuel supply is preferably effected through a terminal to which a secondary incident prop can be releasably coupled for supply of fuel to the prop. That prop may, for example, be arranged to simulate a vapour fire, and is suitably used with a primary prop associated with the simulated liquid fuel-spill fire.

The auxiliary fuel supply will generally be associated with corresponding auxiliary control or power cabling and/or an auxiliary pilot fuel supply, in which case a terminal releasably couples control, power and/or pilot fuel connections to the prop.

The simulator of the invention may have a primary service trench from which an auxiliary service channel extends under the fuel distribution means to carry service links including the auxiliary fuel supply to the location of the simulated secondary incident. Those service links are preferably heat-insulated.

Highly advantageously so far as realism is concerned, the invention allows the secondary incident to be enacted on the fuel-spill simulation area, in which case a terminal is preferably situated within the boundaries of the fuel-spill simulation area.

That terminal may, for example, be under a grating that extends across the fuel-spill simulation area, so that a portion of the grating is moved or removed for access to the terminal. Indeed, it is preferred if the terminal is normally dormant or disabled but is enabled for enacting a secondary incident scenario with a secondary incident prop at the terminal location.

For optimum flexibility, the simulator of the invention advantageously provides for a plurality of auxiliary fuel supplies enabling a plurality of secondary incidents to be

simulated. A corresponding plurality of terminals and/or secondary incident props may then be associated with the simulator. It is preferred that plural auxiliary fuel supplies are controllable independently of each other, and it is further preferred that they are dispersed around the simulator.

Within the embracing inventive concept, the invention also resides in a method of fire simulation comprising simulating a primary fire incident fuelled by a fuel distribution means and simulating a secondary fire incident fuelled by an auxiliary fuel supply under independent control from the fuel distribution means. As above, the method preferably comprises releasably coupling a secondary incident prop to the auxiliary fuel supply, and enabling a dormant or disabled terminal carrying the auxiliary fuel supply.

The invention allows for various methods of simulation, such as interchanging among different secondary incident props, simulating a plurality of secondary fire incidents fuelled by respective auxiliary fuel supplies under independent control from each other, and simulating secondary fire incidents at different locations around the simulator. For instance, a secondary incident prop can be moved across the simulator from one location to another, and different secondary fire incidents can be simulated at the different locations. Those different secondary fire incidents may be simulated in parallel or, for added realism, to develop interactively in apparent consequence of one another.

In order that this invention may be more readily understood, reference will now be made, by way of example, to the accompanying drawings in which: Figure 1, which has already been described, is a diagram of a burning surface; Figure 2 is a schematic sectional side view of a fuel spill simulator to which the invention can be applied; Figure 3 is a perspective view of a serpentine array of fuel distribution pipes being part of the simulator of Figure 2;

Figure 4 is a schematic sectional side view of a second type of fuel spill simulator to which the invention can be applied ; Figure 5 is a schematic sectional side view of a third type of fuel spill simulator to which the invention can be applied; Figure 6 is a perspective view of an array of support frames laid over serpentine arrays of fuel distribution pipes, as part of the simulator of Figure 5; Figure 7 is a perspective view corresponding to Figure 6 but showing gravel laid over the fuel distribution pipes within all of the support frames and grating bars laid on some of those support frames over the gravel; Figure 8 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the support frames of Figure 7, with the grating bars partially cut away to show gravel within the frame and that gravel being partially removed to show a fuel distribution pipe normally buried by the gravel; Figure 9 is a perspective part-sectioned view of part of the array of support frames bordering the central trench of Figure 5, showing their drainage provisions ; Figure 10 is a schematic perspective view of a substantially complete simulator corresponding to Figure 5; Figures 11 (a) and 11 (b) are schematic plan views of a simulator corresponding to that shown in Figures 5 and 10, showing how a prop such as a mock-up aircraft can be positioned and re-positioned on the working surface; Figure 12 is a partial schematic perspective view of a simulator in accordance with the invention, being akin to the simulator of Figures 5 and 10 but adapted for use in Secondary Incident Training (SIT) scenarios;

Figure. 13 is a partial schematic perspective view of the simulator arrangement of Figure 12, but showing a SIT prop on the working surface of the simulator and enabled for use; and Figure 14 is a schematic plan view of a simulator having a main prop and showing locations for siting auxiliary SIT props used to enact various SIT scenarios.

Referring firstly to Figure 2 of the drawings, a fuel spill simulator 1 comprises a steel pan 2 set into concrete foundations 3 that support the pan 2. The pan 2 may, for example, be circular or rectangular in plan, and is bordered by service trenches 4 that contain control equipment 5 and services such as fuel supply pipework and power or control cabling (not shown). The trenches 4 shown in Figure 2 may, of course, represent opposed sections of one continuous trench 4 that surrounds the pan 2.

The pan 2 and the trenches 4 are surmounted by a grating 6 that defines a flat, level working surface on which a trainee fire-fighter can walk and upon which a firefighting vehicle can preferably drive. Full details of the grating 6 will be given later.

In the embodiment illustrated, the working surface defined by the grating 6 extends beyond the trenches 4 into neighbouring or surrounding areas 7 on the other side of the trenches 4 from the pan 2, which areas may surmount neighbouring pans of similar design. In any event, the grating 6 should be flush with the neighbouring or surrounding areas 7 to minimise trip hazards and will eventually extend to a contiguous concrete apron or blockwork surface (not shown) with which it preferably defines a continuous substantially level surface.

The base of the pan 2 is dished slightly to promote drainage of fire-fighting water W or precipitation through a central drain 8, from which the water W is preferably filtered and recycled. The pan 2 supports a layer of gravel 9 of substantially uniform thickness and a plurality of vertical grating supports 10 that support the grating 6 at intervals across its width over the pan 2. The supports 10 extend from the grating 6 to the pan 2 and so extend through a mesh 11 over the gravel 9 such that their base portions are surrounded by gravel 9. It will be evident that in view of the dished shape

of the pan 2, the supports 10 are of various lengths to suit their position with respect to the centre of the pan 2, while keeping the grating 6 level.

Exposed fuel distribution pipework 12 constituting a burner extends over the gravel layer 9 and the mesh 11 and around the supports 10 in a sinuous, serpentine array. The pipes 12 of the array are preferably of maintenance-free stainless steel. As can be seen in Figure 3 which shows an array of pipes 12 over the pan 2 but omits the intermediate gravel layer 9 for clarity, the pipes 12 are perforated to define downwardly-facing orifices, holes or nozzles for the egress of propane supplied from a supply pipe leading from control equipment 5 within the trench 4 beyond the outer edge of the pan 2. The propane is in the liquid phase under pressure before it enters the pipes 12, but flashes into the vapour phase as it flows through the pipes 12 before its emergence from the orifices, holes or nozzles in the pipes, whereupon the gas streams downwardly to approach the gravel layer 9.

During its journey through the pipes 12, a mix of propane vapour and swiftlyvaporising liquid propane is warmed by the radiant heat to which the pipes 12 are exposed. This promotes the evaporation of the remaining liquid fraction and the flammability of the fuel as a whole, which beneficially simulates the behaviour of a real fuel spill. The radiant heat radiates downwardly from the flames above the grating 6 and upwardly from the gravel layer 9, this latter radiation being due to reflection of radiant heat that originated from the flames, and heating of the gravel layer 9 itself by that heat. The openings of the grating 6 are large enough to permit substantial radiant heat flux to pass through the grating 6, but not so large as to present a trip hazard for fire-fighters walking on the working surface defined by the grating 6.

As can be seen in the enlarged detail view included in Figure 2, an array of parallel or intersecting rods 14 sandwiched between the gravel 9 and the pan 2 act as groynes to resist movement of the gravel 9 with respect to the pan 2, especially down the slope of the dished pan base 2. Where the rods 14 intersect, they are preferably interlaced in woven manner to define openings for water drainage down the dished shape of the pan base 2. Retention of gravel 9is further assured by the aforementioned wire mesh 11 that lies on top of the layer of gravel 9 under the fuel distribution pipework 12.

Once heated in use, that mesh can further contribute to the upwardly-radiating heat that warms the fuel distribution pipes and the propane streams emanating from those pipes.

The enlarged detail view included in Figure 2 also makes plain that the gravel 9 comprises various particle sizes. To be specific, the stone specification is of igneous rocks selected from the following group of classifications, namely: fine-grained granite; diabase; gabbro; basalt; and rhyolite. The stone is crushed and provided as sized aggregate conforming to ASTM-C33, grade 2 (or equivalent), as follows:

Sieve Size (mm) 100% 75 90-100% 65 35-70% 50 0-15% 40 0-5% 20 As can be seen in Figures 2 and 3, each trench 4 beside the pan 2 contains a fuel supply control unit for regulating the supply of fuel to the fuel distribution pipes 12 and a pilot control unit for lighting the fuel ejected from the pipes 12, which units are shown together as control equipment 5 hung on a side wall of the trench 4. The trench 4 is closed in use by a porous lid 15 under the grating 6 (omitted from Figure 3), which lid serves to protect the control equipment 5 from radiant heat but can be opened to afford access to the control equipment 5 when required. The trench 4 also contains an air pipe 16 whose purpose is to purge the trench 4 of flammable and potentially explosive gases that may build up in use, when the trench 4 is closed by the lid 15. The air pipe 16 does this by introducing air to pressurise the trench 4: this helps to prevent dangerous contaminants entering the trench 4 and forces excess air together with any contaminants out of the trench 4 through the porous lid 15.

The simulator of Figure 4 is broadly analogous to that of Figures 2 and 3 in that it provides for full vaporisation of fuel by downward projection above gravel 9, so like numerals are used for like parts. The key differences are that, in Figure 4:

the pan 2 is cambered so that water runs outwardly from the centre and drains into the trench (es) 4 ; the supply pipes 13 that supply the fuel distribution pipework 12 are centrally located with respect to the pan 2, inboard of the fuel distribution pipework 12, rather than being at the outer edge of the pan 2; the trenches 4 lack lids and so are open in the sense that they vent freely to atmosphere through vented covers 17; and the control equipment 5 is recessed into cavities in the trench wall for protection from heat and water.

The relative simplicity of the Figure 4 simulator will be evident upon comparing the drawings, which reduces its cost in comparison with the Figure 2 simulator but without sacrificing performance. Specifically, the trenches 4 perform the dual function of housing and providing access to the control equipment 5 and also draining water from the pan 2. This obviates the central dedicated drain 8 of Figure 2.

Furthermore, the open trench design provides inherent explosion relief without the need for the purging air pipes 16 of Figure 2. Being recessed into the trench wall, the control equipment 5 no longer needs the protection of the porous lid 15 from radiant heat, but it will need to be positioned above the maximum water level that is predicted to be in the trench 4 under the maximum flow rate of incoming water W in use. It will also be apparent that the inboard supply pipes 13 that supply the fuel distribution pipework 12 can be shorter and simpler than the outboard supply pipes 13 of Figure 2.

The simulator of Figure 5 also shares some features with the simulators of Figures 2 and 4 and so again, like numerals are used for like parts. Unlike the simulators of Figures 2 and 4, there is no pan; instead, a steel-edged recess is simply formed in a concrete slab foundation 3 to contain a layer of gravel 9. A typical depth for this recess would be up to 500mm but this depends on the drainage requirements and what the total finished area of the simulator might be.

The gravel 9 is surmounted by a grating 6, preferably lying flush with the surrounding concrete or blockwork apron 18, that stands on vertical supports 10 extending upwardly from the base of the recess. In this simulator, a trench 4 extends centrally along the recess and, as shown in the enlarged detail view included in Figure 5, the fuel distribution pipework 12 lies on the base of the recess and so is disposed below the gravel layer 9. Again, the pipework 12 is perforated to define a series of holes, apertures or nozzles to eject fuel in use, but unlike the simulators of Figures 2 and 4 which eject fuel downwardly for maximum evaporative effect, the fuel of the Figure 5 simulator can be ejected in any direction as it is intended to be dispersed by the gravel 9 in any event.

As in Figure 4, the trench 4 of the Figure 5 simulator is closed by a vented cover 17 so as to vent explosive gases to atmosphere and the control equipment 5 is recessed into cavities in the trench walls. Also, whilst no camber or dish is evident from Figure 5, the base of the recess is very gently inclined, sloped or dished toward the trench 4 to promote drainage of water from the gravel layer 9. It is advantageous that water does not drain away too quickly, so as to allow enough time for the flare-off of unburned gas; otherwise, that unburned gas may be entrained in a fast-moving stream of water and swept away to cause dangerous gas accumulations downstream.

To describe the grating 6 and its supports 10 in detail, the description of the Figure 5 simulator will now continue with reference to the remaining drawings. It will be evident to the skilled reader how the grating 6 and supports 10 shown in those drawings can be adapted to suit the simulators of Figures 2 and 4 in which, unlike Figure 5, the fuel distribution pipework 12 is exposed above the gravel layer 9. In particular, it will be readily apparent how most if not all of the grating features of the Figure 5 simulator can be applied to the preceding simulators if a suitably adapted support is used.

Referring then to Figures 6 to 9 of the drawings, the abovementioned grating supports 10 are defined by the upstanding walls 10A, 10B of fabricated square support frames 20 that are open to their top and bottom and that lie upon and are fixed to the base of the recess of Figure 5. As best shown in Figures 6 and 7, the support frames 20 fit together in rectilinear arrays in mutually-abutting modular fashion, so that each

support frame 20 helps to support its neighbours against side loadings in use. The walls I OA, I OB of the various support frames 20 thus lie in orthogonally-intersecting vertical planes.

Looking at any one of the support frames 20 as shown in Figure 8, it will be noted that each of its four walls l0A, l0B is a flat elongate plate that is preferably of mild steel.

Each plate is welded at each of its opposed ends to a respective orthogonally-disposed neighbouring plate, the welded junctions between the plates thus defining the comers of the square between the walls. Additionally, each plate has a cut-out 21 extending along one of its long edges, namely the lower edge that is disposed generally horizontally and facing downwardly in use. The ends of the cut-outs 21 are defined by feet 22 that have a square fixing plate 23 welded to them at the lower comers of the support frame 20. Each fixing plate 23 is therefore arranged to lie flat against the base of the recess and it is pierced by a through-hole (not shown) that enables the support frame to be bolted or otherwise fixed to the base. Whilst not essential, it is preferred that the support frames 20 are fixed down in this way so as to prevent excessive sideways movement or'shuffling'of the support frames as vehicles drive over the working surface of the simulator.

The cut-outs 21 in the walls of the support frames 20 align with those of neighbouring support frames 20 in use, and have the dual function of accommodating the serpentine arrays of fuel distribution pipes 12 previously fixed at appropriate locations to the base of the recess, and of permitting water W to drain across the base of the recess toward the central trench of Figure 5. Specific reference is made to Figure 9 in this respect.

The plates defining two opposed walls lOB of each support frame are further provided with castellated upper edges defined by a row of upstanding oblong teeth 24 alternating with, and delineated by, oblong slots 25. As will be most apparent from Figures 7 and 8, the purpose of the castellations is to hold a set of oblong-section steel grating bars 26 bridging the open top of the support frame 20 in a parallel spaced array that defines a substantially flat, if locally slightly inclined, working surface level with the upper edges of the walls 10A, 10B and the teeth 24. Thus, the castellations

hold the grating bars 26 at a suitable height above the fuel distribution pipes 12, and keep those bars 26 in the correct position during use of the simulator.

To this end, each grating bar 26 is held at one end in a slot 25 of one castellated wall I OB and at the other end by the corresponding slot of the opposite castellated wall 1 OB. It will also be apparent from the drawings that the major cross-sectional axis of each grating bar 26 is oriented vertically to maximise its load-bearing ability against loads moving over the grating 6.

In practice, the grating bars 26 are fitted into the slots 25 only after the aforementioned layer of gravel 9 in the form of igneous stone chippings or other particulate dispersive medium has been poured into the open support frames 20 around the fuel distribution pipes 12, burying them to a depth of say 120mm. The layer of gravel 9 substantially fills the space around the fuel distribution pipes 12 between the grating bars 26 and the base of the recess. It will be apparent that the gravel 9 has little room to move when so positioned and that any tendency it might have to shift sideways across the recess is limited by the baffle effect of the walls 1 OA, I OB that effectively partition the gravel bed 9.

It will also be noted, with particular reference to Figures 6,7 and 10, that neighbouring support frames 20 in rows or columns of the array within the recess are turned through 900 with respect to each other so that their castellated walls 10B never abut one another. Thus, as best shown in Figure 10, the grating bars 26 define cells 27 in rows or columns corresponding to the support frames 20 and the grating bars 26 of adjacent cells are mutually orthogonal. This alternating arrangement can be appreciated in the check pattern extending over the working surface of the simulator.

The functional significance of the alternating arrangement of the grating bars 26 is twofold. Firstly, the grating bars 26 are free to slide longitudinally within their slots 25 for the purposes of thermal expansion without distortion but once they have slid to a limited extent (a maximum of 10mm in the preferred embodiment), they will bear against the non-castellated wall 10A of a neighbouring support frame 20 and so can slide no further. This is important under the dynamic sideways loads likely to be imparted by a swerving or braking fire tender or other emergency vehicle. Secondly, a

major benefit of the grating 6 is its ability to dissipate the flow of incoming jets of water or other fire-fighting agents and so to prevent the dispersive medium being disturbed by those jets being played directly on the working surface of the simulator.

As the dissipating effect of a straight grating of wholly aligned elements might conceivably be overcome if the incoming jet is aligned with the elements, the alternating arrangement of grating bars 26 has the benefit that it will reliably disrupt jets of water striking the working surface from any angle. In any event, any water that does get through the working surface while retaining damaging momentum will be dissipated by the baffle effect of the walls 1 OA, 1 OB between the support frames 20, under the working surface.

To help visualise the size of each frame 20, and strictly by way of example only, their pitch or spacing between centres is nominally 1 metre and so the overall width of each frame is 990mm square to leave a thermal expansion gap of 1 Omm all round. The walls 10A, 10B of each frame are 25mm thick and stand a total of 200mm above the base of the recess. Each grating bar 26 is of 80mm x 30mm black bar and the slots 25 that receive the grating bars 26 are of corresponding dimensions. About 170mm is therefore available under the grating bars 26 and above the base of the recess to accommodate the fuel distribution pipes 12 and the surrounding layer of gravel 9. The spacing between neighbouring grating bars 26 of a given support frame 20 is no greater than 33mm so as to present no trip hazard to trainee fire-fighters walking on the working surface. The pitch or spacing between centres of the grating bars 26 is

therefore nominally 66mm and there is provision for thirteen of such bars on each support frame 20.

A grating specified as above can withstand the maximum wheel load of a Major Airport Crashtruck (MAC). Performing structural analysis according to the requirements of BS5950 : Partl: 1985 using ANSYS 5. 0A, and assuming amass of the tender of 501. 1 kN and a maximum axle load of 130kN, the grating can comfortably withstand braking from 20kph.

Moreover, the considerable mass of the grating bars 26 (in the order of250kg/m) imparts thermal inertia that makes them slow to attain damaging temperatures. During typically short bursts of use from cold (anything longer than three minutes of practice

fire-fighting is rare in view of the need for extreme speed in real-life aviation firefighting), their temperature keeps well within the parameters appropriate to ordinary personal protection equipment (PPE) routinely worn by fire-fighters. Fire-fighter protective footwear and other PPE is rated to withstand temperatures up to 200 Celsius; tests show that the mass of the grating bars 26 keeps their temperature to about 180 Celsius even after exposure to the radiated heat flux of a fire with flame temperatures between 700 and 1100 Celsius.

A beneficial side-effect of the considerable girth of the grating bars 26 is that corrosion will not significantly reduce their cross-section and hence load-bearing strength during their projected working life. Consequently, the working surface of the simulator needs no expensive or fragile corrosion treatments, and is essentially maintenance-free.

The load-bearing ability of the working surface is heightened by the elegant design of the fabricated support frames 20, in which downward loads are transferred directly to the foundations through the vertical walls 1 OA, 1 OB without putting the aforementioned welds under damaging tensile or bending loads.

As already mentioned, the simulator shown in Figures 5 et seq is modular in nature.

Specifically, it is envisaged that a standard module comprises a serpentine fuel distribution pipe 12, an associated fuel supply control unit and nine support frames 20 in a 3 x 3 array and hence, with the above dimensions, gives a working surface that

2 covers 9m2. Several such modules can be used together to construct a simulator having a working surface of any required size, such as the one shown in Figure 10 which comprises eight modules on each side of the central trench 4, giving a total working area of 144m2 excluding the area of the trench 4 itself. In practice, the working area of a simulator will generally be substantially greater so that large props can be placed on the working surface and correspondingly wide-ranging fuel spills can be simulated.

The central trench 4 featured in Figures 5,9 and 10 is covered by a removable vented cover 17 as shown in Figures 5 and 10, which can be lifted when it is necessary to

gain access to the control equipment 5 and ancillary equipment, such as valve trains and service pipework, within the trench 4.

Figures 11 (a) and 11 (b) show how a prop 28, in this case a mock-up of a military jet, can be placed freely on the working surface of a simulator akin to that of Figure 10. In both drawings, the prop 28 is aligned with the prevailing wind shown by the arrows as this is the direction in which a crash-landed aircraft is most likely to lie, although other angles to the prevailing wind can obviously be simulated for wide-ranging practice. In Figure 11 (a), the prevailing wind is offset by about 300 with respect to the central trench 4 of the simulator and the central longitudinal axis of the prop 28 is similarly aligned. However in Figure 11 (b), the prevailing wind is aligned with the trench 4 and the prop 28 has been re-aligned accordingly and also advanced across the working surface. Highly advantageously, the prop 28 can simply be dragged across the working surface from one orientation to the other, with no need of a crane to lift the prop 28.

Moving on finally to Figures 12, 13 and 14, these drawings illustrate embodiments of the invention suitable for fire-fighter training involving so-called secondary incidents.

Specifically, a main or primary incident-for example, an aircraft crash landingcould well be accompanied by one or more secondary incidents such as a collapsed building hit by the aircraft or a burning airport vehicle set alight by a fuel spill from the aircraft. Training for that kind of eventuality is known in the art by the acronym SIT, standing for Secondary Incident Training.

The embodiments of Figures 12, 13 and 14 cater for SIT by providing one or more locations on and under the working surface of the simulator that can be adapted to enable the use of one or more secondary props in parallel with, or instead of, a main prop. This is achieved by the provision of a channel 30 formed in the base 31 of the recess, which channel 30 extends from the central trench 4 under the fuel distribution pipes 12 to a desired location under the working surface. The channel 30 itself is best shown in Figure 12, whereas Figure 13 shows the channel 30 filled with service supply links 32 (such as a pilot fuel duct, a main flame fuel duct and control/electronics cabling) and terminating in a SIT control unit 33 to which those

service supply links 32 run. In this way, each channel 30 contains the services necessary to fuel and control a small SIT scenario.

In normal use of the simulator with a main prop (not shown), the service supply links 32 and the SIT control unit 33 remain dormant under the grating 6, which continues to present an uninterrupted working surface. Indeed, the fuel distribution pipes 12 remain undisturbed and so, with suitable heat-shielding, the service supply links 32 and the SIT control unit 33 can be left buried under gravel 9 for the purposes of normal fire simulation, burning fuel supplied via the fuel distribution pipes 12 at that location.

When a SIT scenario is to be enacted, a small SIT prop 34 (in this case, resembling a car that will simulate a small vapour fire) is dragged across the working surface to near the location of the SIT control unit 33. The service supply links 32 and the SIT control unit 33 can then be enabled simply by removing sufficient grating bars 26 (which lift out easily from their castellated support frames 20) and underlying gravel 9 to gain access to the SIT control unit 33, whereupon the flexible connections 35 necessary to bring pilot fuel, main fuel, control signals and electrical power to the nearby SIT prop 34 can simply be plugged into the SIT control unit. The flexible connections 35 can be shrouded by a protective sleeve (not shown) if they are exposed to flame, as they will be in Figure 13, although some SIT props may make provision for internal connection to the SIT control unit 33 in such a way that the prop itself shields the connections from the flames.

Only one channel 30 is illustrated in Figures 12 and 13 for the purposes of clarity.

However, for optimum flexibility, there are preferably a few similarly-equipped channels, such as four of them, leading to different locations dispersed around the working surface of the simulator. Such an arrangement is shown in Figure 14 in which a main prop 36 representing a full-size Boeing 747-400 aircraft, which is optionally a permanent fixture, has extensive fuel spill simulators 37 to the port and starboard sides. Here, four locations for possible SIT scenarios are represented as blocks 38.

One example could be a SIT prop fabricated to represent a re-fuelling tanker servicing the aircraft and so located near a wing 39, and a multi-scenario training exercise could begin with an incident with the tanker, escalating to a fuel spill fire, escalating to a

larger fuel spill fire and finally involving the aircraft itself. The simulated fire could spread to, or the scenario could otherwise involve, other SIT props at other locations on the working surface of the simulator.

In general, the props can be moved, swapped and interchanged with great flexibility to create fresh training scenarios involving interaction between a main incident, a fuel spill and one or more secondary incidents, that can be adapted readily to suit the prevailing weather and the needs of the trainees. This fosters the ability to set up'joint services'training involving combinations of fire, police and paramedic services, and ensures that scenarios remain instantly controllable so that if, for example, a genuine incident occurs during training, crews can break off from training and attend that incident without delay.

Many variations are possible within the inventive concept. For example, whilst a gravel bed is preferred as a dispersive medium where such a medium is to be used, the grating could alternatively be used over a pan of water acting as the dispersive medium. Consequently, reference should be made to the appended claims and to other conceptual statements herein rather than to the foregoing specific description in determining the scope of the invention.

Claims (28)

1. A fire simulator having fuel distribution means for fuelling flames simulating a liquid fuel-spill fire, those flames extending across a fuel-spill simulation area, and an auxiliary fuel supply that is controllable independently of the fuel distribution means to simulate a secondary incident.

2. The simulator of Claim 1, wherein the auxiliary fuel supply is effected through a terminal to which a secondary incident prop can be releasably coupled for supply of fuel to the prop.

3. The simulator of Claim 2, wherein the prop is arranged to simulate a vapour fire.

4. The simulator of Claim 2 or Claim 3, wherein the secondary incident prop is used with a primary prop associated with the simulated liquid fuel-spill fire.

5. The simulator of any preceding Claim, wherein the auxiliary fuel supply is associated with corresponding auxiliary control or power cabling and/or an auxiliary pilot fuel supply.

6. The simulator of Claim 5 when appendant to Claim 2, wherein the terminal releasably couples control, power and/or pilot fuel connections to the prop.

7. The simulator of any preceding Claim and having a primary service trench from which an auxiliary service channel extends under the fuel distribution means to carry service links including the auxiliary fuel supply to the location of the simulated secondary incident.

8. The simulator of Claim 7, wherein the service links are heat-insulated.

9. The simulator of any preceding Claim, wherein the secondary incident can be enacted on the fuel-spill simulation area.

10. The simulator of Claim 9 when appendant to Claim 2, wherein the terminal is within the boundaries of the fuel-spill simulation area.

11. The simulator of Claim 10, wherein the terminal is under a grating that extends across the fuel-spill simulation area.

12. The simulator of Claim 11, wherein a portion of the grating is movable or removable for access to the terminal.

13. The simulator of any of Claims 10 to 12, wherein the terminal is normally dormant or disabled but is enabled for enacting a secondary incident scenario with a secondary incident prop at the terminal location.

14. The simulator of any preceding Claim, and having a plurality of auxiliary fuel supplies enabling a plurality of secondary incidents to be simulated.

15. The simulator of Claim 14, wherein the auxiliary fuel supplies are controllable independently of each other.

16. The simulator of Claim 14 or Claim 15 when appendant to Claim 2, wherein a corresponding plurality of terminals and/or secondary incident props are associated with the simulator.

17. The simulator of any of Claims 14 to 16, wherein the plurality of auxiliary fuel supplies is dispersed around the simulator.

18. A method of fire simulation comprising simulating a primary fire incident fuelled by a fuel distribution means and simulating a secondary fire incident fuelled by an auxiliary fuel supply under independent control from the fuel distribution means.

19. The method of Claim 18, comprising releasably coupling a secondary incident prop to the auxiliary fuel supply.

20. The method of Claim 19, comprising enabling a dormant or disabled terminal carrying the auxiliary fuel supply.

21. The method of Claim 19 or Claim 20, comprising interchanging among different secondary incident props.

22. The method of any of Claims 18 to 21, comprising simulating a plurality of secondary fire incidents fuelled by respective auxiliary fuel supplies under independent control from each other.

23. The method of any of Claims 18 to 22, comprising simulating secondary fire incidents at different locations around the simulator.

24. The method of Claim 23, wherein a secondary incident prop is moved across the simulator from one location to another.

25. The method of Claim 23 or Claim 24, wherein different secondary fire incidents are simulated at the different locations.

26. The method of Claim 25, wherein the different secondary fire incidents are simulated in parallel or to develop interactively in apparent consequence of one another.

27. A fire simulator, substantially as hereinbefore described with reference to or as illustrated in any of Figures 12 to 14 of the accompanying drawings.

28. A method of fire simulation, substantially as hereinbefore described.