EP3843162B1 - Method for manufacturing a light-emitting diode with extraction layer comprising a step of sizing of a semiconductor layer - Google Patents

Method for manufacturing a light-emitting diode with extraction layer comprising a step of sizing of a semiconductor layer Download PDF

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EP3843162B1
EP3843162B1 EP20215891.1A EP20215891A EP3843162B1 EP 3843162 B1 EP3843162 B1 EP 3843162B1 EP 20215891 A EP20215891 A EP 20215891A EP 3843162 B1 EP3843162 B1 EP 3843162B1
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layer
dipoles
distance
orientation
optical
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EP3843162A1 (en
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Gilles Le Blevennec
Badhise Ben Bakir
Eirini Sarelli
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Commissariat a lEnergie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives CEA
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Commissariat a lEnergie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives CEA
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    • HELECTRICITY
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    • H01L33/00Semiconductor devices having potential barriers specially adapted for light emission; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof
    • H01L33/48Semiconductor devices having potential barriers specially adapted for light emission; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof characterised by the semiconductor body packages
    • H01L33/58Optical field-shaping elements
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    • H01L33/04Semiconductor devices having potential barriers specially adapted for light emission; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof characterised by the semiconductor bodies with a quantum effect structure or superlattice, e.g. tunnel junction
    • H01L33/06Semiconductor devices having potential barriers specially adapted for light emission; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof characterised by the semiconductor bodies with a quantum effect structure or superlattice, e.g. tunnel junction within the light emitting region, e.g. quantum confinement structure or tunnel barrier
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    • H10KORGANIC ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES
    • H10K50/00Organic light-emitting devices
    • H10K50/80Constructional details
    • H10K50/805Electrodes
    • H10K50/81Anodes
    • H10K50/818Reflective anodes, e.g. ITO combined with thick metallic layers
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    • H10K50/00Organic light-emitting devices
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    • H01L33/00Semiconductor devices having potential barriers specially adapted for light emission; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof
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    • H10K2102/301Details of OLEDs
    • H10K2102/331Nanoparticles used in non-emissive layers, e.g. in packaging layer

Definitions

  • the field of the invention is that of methods for manufacturing light-emitting diodes comprising a semiconductor stack of inorganic or organic layers, including an emissive active layer, as well as an extraction layer.
  • the Figure 1A partially and schematically illustrates an example of a light-emitting diode 1 comprising a stack of semiconductor layers, here inorganic, including a first N-doped layer 11, a second P-doped layer 12, and an active layer 13 arranged between the two doped layers 11, 12 and at which most of the light radiation is emitted.
  • the light-emitting diode 1 rests here on a substrate 2 comprising a conductive layer 3, in contact with which there is located an advantageously reflective electrode 4 forming the anode.
  • a preferably transparent electrode 5 forming a cathode rests on the N-doped layer 11.
  • the reflective electrode 4 is preferably made of a metallic material.
  • the active layer 13 can be formed, in the case of a PN junction, by the interface of the two doped layers 11, 12 in contact with one another, or in the case of a PIN junction, by at at least one intrinsic layer 13 (ie not intentionally doped) which may comprise one or more quantum wells.
  • Each quantum well may be formed by a layer having a band gap energy lower than that of the two barrier layers between which it is located, or may be formed by quantum dots .
  • the charge carriers (electrons and holes) are introduced into the semiconductor stack by the electrodes 4, 5, then diffuse to the active layer 13 where they recombine in a radiative manner.
  • the light radiation associated with the radiative recombinations of the electron-hole pairs in the active layer 13 corresponds to the electric dipole radiation emitted by a so-called emitter dipole which oscillates in a harmonically along the axis of its dipole moment ⁇ (also called TDMV, for Transition Dipole Moment Vector ).
  • the figure 1B schematically illustrates an emitter dipole located in a first medium (containing the active layer) optically linear, homogeneous and isotropic, of dielectric constant ⁇ 1 and spaced from a second optically linear, homogeneous and isotropic medium of dielectric constant ⁇ 2 .
  • a first medium containing the active layer
  • the field lines extend in axial symmetry around the axis of the dipole moment ⁇ .
  • the wave vector k is orthogonal to the tangent at any point on a field line.
  • the orientation of the emitter dipoles is a parameter which can impact the luminous efficiency of an emitting diode such as an organic light-emitting diode.
  • the object of the invention is to remedy at least in part the drawbacks of the prior art, and more particularly to propose a method of manufacturing at least one light-emitting diode having an improved luminous efficiency.
  • the nanometric particles can be quantum dots made of semiconductor nanocrystals, and/or be made of at least one metallic material.
  • the nanometric particles can have an average diameter of between 0.2 nm and 500 nm.
  • the nanometric particles can extend in a plane parallel to the active layer, and be arranged at the interface with the first semiconductor layer.
  • the first distance determined can be less than or equal to 50 nm, thus optimizing the non-radiative coupling of the dipole-dipole type between the emitting dipoles and the optical dipoles.
  • the first determined distance can be defined along an axis orthogonal to the plane of the active layer, from an interface between the extraction layer and the first semiconductor layer to a plane passing through half a thickness of the active layer.
  • the active layer may comprise at least one quantum well emissive layer, and a barrier layer located between the first semiconductor layer and the emissive layer, the determined distance being defined along an axis orthogonal to the plane of the active layer, between on the one hand the interface between the extraction layer and the first semiconductor layer, and on the other hand a plane passing through half the thickness of the emissive layer.
  • the reflective electrode can be an anode suitable for injecting holes into the semiconductor stack, and the second semiconductor layer can be made of a P-type doped semiconductor crystalline material, or be made of a hole-conducting organic semiconductor material.
  • the first semiconductor layer can be made of an N-type doped semiconductor crystalline material, or be made of an organic semiconductor material that conducts electrons.
  • the invention relates to a method for manufacturing at least one light-emitting diode having an improved luminous efficiency.
  • the luminous efficiency is defined here as the ratio of the luminous flux emitted by the light-emitting diode to the electrical power injected, and corresponds to the external quantum efficiency (EQE). It is equal to the product of the internal quantum efficiency (IQE) and the light extraction efficiency.
  • the internal quantum efficiency is the ratio of the number of photons generated by radiative recombination to the number of electrons injected by the cathode
  • the light extraction efficiency is the ratio of the number of photons emitted out of the diode to the number of generated photons.
  • a first layer of the semiconductor stack of the light-emitting diode is coated at least in part with an extraction layer intended in particular to increase the efficiency of light extraction.
  • This extraction layer is formed of at least one dielectric material and transparent to the light radiation emitted by the active layer of the light-emitting diode. It also comprises, located in the dielectric material, nanometric particles of the quantum box type and/or metallic particles, so that the light extraction induces a near-field coupling of the dipole-dipole type between the so-called donor optical dipoles associated with the active layer and the so-called acceptor optical dipoles associated with the nanometric particles.
  • the first semiconductor layer is dimensioned so that the donor optical dipoles associated with the recombinations radiatives of the electron-hole pairs in the active layer exhibit a predominant vertical orientation over a horizontal orientation.
  • the horizontal or vertical character of the orientation of the optical dipole is relative to a plane along which the active layer of the light-emitting diode extends.
  • the orientation of an emitter dipole corresponds to the angle of inclination ⁇ formed by the dipole moment ⁇ of the optical dipole with respect to an axis orthogonal to the plane of the active layer.
  • the figure 2A is a schematic partial sectional view of an example of a light-emitting diode 1.
  • This light-emitting diode 1 is similar to that described above, and differs essentially in that it comprises an extraction layer 6 and was obtained by a manufacturing method according to one embodiment.
  • An orthogonal direct reference XYZ is defined here and for the rest of the description, where the axes X and Y form a plane parallel to the main plane of a substrate (not shown) on which the light-emitting diode 1 rests, and where the axis Z is oriented orthogonally to the XY plane and in the direction of the extraction layer 6.
  • the active layer 13 extends along the XY plane.
  • the light-emitting diode 1 thus comprises a semiconductor stack formed of a first layer 11, an active layer 13, and a second layer 12.
  • the semiconductor stack is made from a crystalline semiconductor material inorganic, but as a variant, it can be produced based on an organic semiconductor material (OLED).
  • OLED organic semiconductor material
  • the light-emitting diode 1 may comprise additional layers not shown, for example an electron blocking layer, a lattice parameter adaptation buffer layer, etc.
  • the semiconductor stack is made from this semiconductor material or from one or more compounds comprising this semiconductor material.
  • the semiconductor stack is made based on a III-V compound, for example based on GaN, and can thus comprise at least one doped or undoped GaN semiconductor layer, and at least one into a compound comprising GaN, for example InGaN, AlGaN, InAlGaN, or even is made from InP, for example of the AlInGaP type, etc.
  • the light-emitting diode 1 can be an organic diode, in which case it is formed of two anodic and cathodic electrodes between which are stacked organic semiconductor layers, including an electron transport layer (ETL), an active layer (EML) and a hole transport layer (HTL).
  • ETL electron transport layer
  • EML active layer
  • HTL hole transport layer
  • the semiconductor stack is made from GaN
  • the first layer 11 is made of N-doped GaN
  • the second layer 12 is made of P-doped GaN.
  • active layer 13 here comprises a quantum well layer 13.1 of intrinsic InGaN located between two barrier layers 13.2 of intrinsic GaN.
  • the active layer 13 can include several quantum well layers located between two barrier layers.
  • the reflective electrode 4 is made of one or more metallic materials chosen from silver, aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, nickel, iridium, tungsten, indium, among others. It extends in contact with the second layer 12.
  • the active layer 13 extends along an XY plane parallel to that of the extraction layer 6.
  • a cathode electrode (not shown) can extend in contact with the first layer 11, for example coplanar with the extraction layer 6.
  • the extraction layer 6 is adapted to allow a non-radiative coupling in the near field of the dipole-dipole type with the active layer 13, thus improving the light extraction efficiency and therefore the performance of the light-emitting diode 1. It extends in contact with the first layer 11 (here made of N-doped GaN) and coats it at least partially (in particular when another part of the surface of the first layer 11 is coated by the cathode electrode).
  • the extraction layer 6 is formed of a dielectric material 6.2 and transparent to the emission wavelength of the active layer 13 which forms a binding matrix in which nanometric particles 6.1 are located.
  • the transparent dielectric material 6.2 has an incident radiation transmission coefficient at least equal to 50%, preferably at least equal to 75%, or even 90%, or even more. It can be chosen from silicone, polysiloxane, PDMS, PMMA, PVA, mineral layers based on sol-gel type oxide such as SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , ZnO, TiO 2 , between others.
  • the nanometric particles 6.1 have an average diameter of the order of a few nanometers to a few hundred nanometers, for example are between 0.2 nm and 500 nm, and preferably between 2 nm and 150 nm. They can in particular be metallic particles and/or quantum dots.
  • the particles are elements distinct from one another, the shape of which may be any, for example spherical, angular, flattened or elongated, or any other shape.
  • the particle size here is the smallest dimension of the particles and the mean diameter is the arithmetic mean of the particle size.
  • the nanometric particles 6.1 are made of a metallic material
  • this can be chosen from among Ag, Cu, Au, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Rh, In, Ru, Fe, CuNi, among others, and among the compounds formed from a mixture of at least two or more of these materials.
  • the surface density of metal particles is determined by Mie theory so as to optimize the absorption efficiency of a metal particle as a function of the refractive index of the dielectric medium.
  • an average diameter of 55 nm for nanometric particles of silver makes it possible to optimize the absorption efficiency at 460 nm.
  • the effective absorption section of these particles is then 0.5 ⁇ 10 -14 m 2 and the surface density can then be of the order of 2 ⁇ 10 14 m -2 .
  • the nanometric particles 6.1 are quantum dots
  • these can be produced in the form of semiconductor nanocrystals, the average size of which can be between 0.2 nm and 500 nm, for example between 1 nm and 100 nm, and in particular between 2 nm and 30nm.
  • the semiconductor material of the nanocrystals can be chosen in particular from cadmium selenide (CdSe), indium phosphorus (InP), cadmium sulphide (CdS), zinc sulphide (ZnS), cadmium oxide (CdO ), zinc cadmium selenide (CdZnSe), or among other suitable semiconductor materials.
  • the surface density depends here in particular on the desired light conversion rate, that is to say on the ratio between the intensity of the photoluminescence radiation emitted by the quantum boxes 6.1 on the intensity of the electroluminescence radiation emitted by the layer active 13.
  • the nanometric particles 6.1 can also be plasmon effect quantum boxes, made for example of a metal core surrounded by a dielectric sheath, itself surrounded by a layer forming a quantum box.
  • the metallic core for example silver, forms an absorbing antenna for the dipole-dipole coupling, and couples this absorbed energy to the material forming the quantum box, which will then emit photoluminescence radiation.
  • the nanometric particles 6.1 are arranged in the extraction layer 6 preferably close to or at the level of the interface with the first layer 11, so as to allow non-radiative coupling in the near field between the optical dipoles ⁇ 1 associated with the active layer 13 and the optical dipoles ⁇ 2 associated with the nanometric particles 6.1. They are preferably arranged along a plane parallel to the XY plane. Preferably, the distance along the Z axis separating the nanometric particles 6.1 from the active layer 13 is less than or equal to 50 nm. This distance can be defined between the plane in which the nanometric particles 6.1 mainly extend and a plane passing through half the thickness of the active layer 13.
  • the distance h 1 separating the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 vis-à-vis the extraction layer 6 is defined for the rest of the description as being the distance along the Z axis between, on the one hand, a plane passing through the half the thickness of the active layer 13, and on the other hand, the extraction layer 6.
  • the distance h 1 it is possible to define the distance h 1 as being the distance along the Z axis between, on the one hand, a plane passing through half the thickness of the quantum well layer 13.1 located closest to the GaN-P layer 12, and on the other hand the extraction layer 6.
  • the distance h 1 is therefore equal to the sum of the thickness of the first layer 11, of the thickness of the barrier layer 13.2, and of half the thickness of the emissive layer 13.1.
  • the orientation of an emitter dipole ⁇ 1 corresponds to the angle ⁇ 1 between its dipole moment and the Z axis orthogonal to the XY plane of the active layer 13. Also, an angle ⁇ 1 equal to 0° corresponds to an orientation vertical of the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 with respect to the plane of the active layer 13 and here in the direction of the extraction layer 6, and an angle ⁇ 1 equal to 90° corresponds to a horizontal orientation.
  • the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 are located in a first homogeneous and isotropic optically linear medium of dielectric constant ⁇ 1 (relative permittivity) and refractive index n 1 , this first medium being formed of the active layer 13 and of the first layer 11.
  • optically homogeneous it is meant that the dielectric constant ⁇ 1 is substantially constant at any point of this first medium, to within 10%, or even within 5%, or even less.
  • the dielectric material 6.2 of the extraction layer 6 forms a second medium which is considered, as a first approximation, to be optically linear homogeneous and isotropic, with dielectric constant ⁇ 2 and refractive index n 2 .
  • the refractive index can be the optical index having a real part (refractive index proper) and a non-zero imaginary part (extinction index).
  • the thickness of the first layer 11 can then be determined by taking into account the value h 1s .
  • a function g is predetermined which expresses an evolution, as a function of the distance h 1 , of a parameter representative of a lifetime of an emitter dipole ⁇ 1 exhibiting one or the other of said orientations, as a function of the optical properties n 1 , n 2 of the first and second homogeneous media.
  • the lifetime ⁇ is defined as being that of an emitter dipole situated in an optically linear, homogeneous and isotropic medium, of dielectric constant ⁇ . It corresponds to the lifetime of the spontaneous emission of a two-level system, which, as a first approximation, is considered to be identical to the lifetime of emitter dipoles in the context of electroluminescence.
  • ⁇ n the normalized lifetime equal to the ratio of the lifetime ⁇ / ⁇ 0 , where the lifetime ⁇ 0 is defined as being that of an emitter dipole located in the same medium but of infinite dimensions, therefore at an infinite distance from the second homogeneous medium.
  • P is the energy dissipation rate of the emitter dipole, in other words the optical power radiated by the emitter dipole in the first homogeneous medium and located at a distance h from the second homogeneous medium
  • Po is the optical power radiated by the same emitter dipole in the first homogeneous medium of infinite dimensions (far from the second homogeneous medium, for example at more than 500 nm from the second homogeneous medium).
  • r s ⁇ sin tan ⁇ 1 s s z ⁇ sin ⁇ 1 not 1 not 2 sin tan ⁇ 1 s s z sin tan ⁇ 1 s s z + sin ⁇ 1 not 1 not 2 sin tan ⁇ 1 s s z
  • ⁇ z 2 / ⁇ 2 corresponds to cos ⁇
  • ( ⁇ x 2 + ⁇ y 2 )/ ⁇ 2 is equal to sin ⁇
  • the wave vector k has, in the first homogeneous medium, a norm denoted k 1 equal to 2 ⁇ /(n 1 ⁇ ).
  • n 1 and n 2 are the refractive indices of the first and second homogeneous media, which are deduced from the dielectric constants ⁇ 1 , ⁇ 2 .
  • the power P radiated by the emitter dipole is formed of three main terms, namely the intrinsic radiated power P 0 (far from any phenomenon linked to the environment of the first homogeneous medium), a term corresponding to the power radiated power associated with the dipole moment ⁇ x and ⁇ y in the XY plane and a term corresponding to the radiated power associated with the dipole moment ⁇ z along the Z axis.
  • This equation is obtained from Maxwell's equations, using Green's dyadic functions to describe a single oscillating point dipole, and the dipole field angular spectrum method extends Green's plane wave and evanescent functions respectively in a cylindrical system.
  • the transmitter dipole therefore interacts with its own reflected plane and evanescent waves.
  • a function g is obtained expressing the evolution of a parameter representative of the lifetime of an emitter dipole ⁇ 1 of predefined orientation ⁇ 1 as a function of the distance h 1 from the extraction layer 6, counts given the optical properties n 1 of the first homogeneous medium (formed of the first layer 11 and active layer 13) and those n 2 of the second homogeneous medium (extraction layer 6).
  • the figure 2B illustrates an example of changes, as a function of the distance h 1 , of the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1,v of an emitter dipole ⁇ 1 of vertical orientation and that ⁇ n1,h of an emitter dipole ⁇ 1 d horizontal orientation, in the case where the first homogeneous medium is made from GaN (first layer 11 and active layer 13), and the second homogeneous medium is made of the dielectric material 6.2 (extraction layer 6), for a emission wavelength equal to 460nm.
  • These evolutions are determined from the function g described previously, and are given over a range of predefined distance ⁇ h 1ref ranging here from 0 nm to 500 nm.
  • the light-emitting diode 1 comprises an emissive layer 13.1 of InGaN (no intrinsic GaN barrier layer) and a first layer 11 of N-doped GaN which together form the first homogeneous medium.
  • the first layer 11 is in contact with the extraction layer 6 made of a dielectric material which forms the second homogeneous medium and has a refractive index n 2 here equal to 1.5.
  • the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1,h of emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 with horizontal orientation remains substantially constant and equal to 1.0, whatever the value of the distance h 1 over the range ⁇ h 1ref .
  • the vertical orientation of the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 remains preponderant on horizontal orientation. It is therefore possible to dimension the thickness of the first layer 11 so that the distance h 1s retained between the emitter dipoles of the active layer 13 to the extraction layer 6 is between 1 nm and 500 nm approximately.
  • the distance h 1s it is advantageous for the distance h 1s to be determined so that a difference between the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1,v of the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 of vertical orientation and the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1,h of the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 of horizontal orientation is significant in absolute value.
  • difference parameter S 1 a so-called difference parameter S 1 , called selectivity, representative of a difference between the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1,v of an emitter dipole ⁇ 1 having the vertical orientation and the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1,h of an emitter dipole ⁇ 1 having the horizontal orientation.
  • This selectivity S 1 can be defined as being the difference or the ratio, in absolute value or not, between the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1,v of an emitter dipole ⁇ 1 having the vertical orientation and the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1,h of an emitter dipole ⁇ 1 presenting the horizontal orientation.
  • the parameter S 1 has a value greater than or equal to 2.0 for h 1 less than or equal to 100 nm, and a value greater than or equal to 2.5 for h 1 less than or equal to approximately 50 nm. It is therefore possible to dimension the thickness of the first layer 11 so that the distance h 1s between the emitter dipoles of the active layer 13 to the extraction layer 6 is between 1 nm and 50 nm approximately.
  • the thickness of the first layer 11 can be chosen between 1 nm and 100 nm, and preferably between 5 nm and 10 nm approximately so as to maximize the near field effect.
  • near field it is meant that the distance between the acceptor and donor dipoles is less than or equal to ⁇ /5, or even less than or equal to ⁇ /10, where ⁇ is the emission wavelength of the radiation emitted by the active layer, by means of the refractive index of the medium, in which the electric field radiated by the dipole decreases in 1/r 3 .
  • the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 exhibiting the vertical orientation will predominate over those exhibiting the horizontal orientation.
  • the light-emitting diode 1 can then be dimensioned, in particular the thickness of the first layer 11, so that the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 are located at the distance h s1 from the extraction layer 6.
  • a non-radiative coupling in the near field of the dipole-dipole type is present between the emitting dipoles denoted here ⁇ 1(D) (for Donors) associated with the radiative recombinations in the active layer 13 and the dipoles denoted here ⁇ 2(A) (for Acceptors) associated to nanometric particles 6.1.
  • These dipoles ⁇ 1(D) and ⁇ 2(A) are the vectors of the dipole moments of the optical dipoles.
  • the intensity of this non-radiative coupling is characterized by the angular coupling factor K 2 .
  • the factor K 2 depends on the orientation of the unit vectors n A and n D associated with the acceptor dipoles ⁇ 2(A) and donors ⁇ 1(D) , and on the unit vector n r connecting the acceptor dipoles ⁇ 2(A) and donors ⁇ 1(D) considered.
  • the dipole-dipole interaction modifies the absorption properties of the ⁇ 2(A) acceptor dipoles.
  • FRET Förster resonance energy transfer
  • the angular coupling factor K 2 is maximum when the donor dipoles ⁇ 1(D) and acceptors ⁇ 2(A) are collinear, in which case the factor K 2 is equal to 4.
  • dimensioning the first layer 11 to obtain a preponderant vertical orientation of the donor dipoles ⁇ 1 (D) makes it possible to make the acceptor dipoles ⁇ 2 (A) collinear with the donor dipoles ⁇ 1 (D) , and thus to further improve the luminous efficiency of the light-emitting diode 1
  • the acceptor dipoles ⁇ 2 (A) are oriented according to the orientation of the donor dipoles ⁇ 1 (D) .
  • the extraction layer 6 is formed of metal particles 6.1
  • the luminous efficiency of the light-emitting diode 1 is further increased by an additional light emission by plasmonic effect.
  • the metal particles 6.1 can thus emit light radiation at a resonance wavelength substantially identical to the electroluminescence wavelength ⁇ e of the light-emitting diode 1.
  • plasmon modes of the metal particles 6.1 are excited, including a resonant mode can lead to the emission of additional light radiation.
  • the plasmonic resonant mode of the metal particles 6.1 corresponds to acceptor dipoles ⁇ 2(A) located in the near field of the donor dipoles ⁇ 1(D) .
  • the extraction layer 6 performs an additional function of converting color, by converting part of the light radiation emitted by the active layer 13 into light radiation of longer wavelength.
  • the thickness of the extraction layer 6 so that the optical dipoles ⁇ 2 associated with the nanometric particles 6.1 are located at a distance h 2s determined with respect to the interface between its upper face 6a and the surrounding medium (eg, air). It may in fact be advantageous to make the vertical orientation of these optical dipoles ⁇ 2 preponderant so as, for example, to further optimize the non-radiative coupling in near field of the dipole-dipole type with the optical dipoles ⁇ 1 of the active layer 13. On the contrary, it may be advantageous to make the horizontal orientation of these optical dipoles ⁇ 2 preponderant when the nanometric particles 6.1 form quantum dots, so as to optimize the intensity of the photoluminescence light radiation in the far field.
  • the nanometric particles 6.1 are always located at the predetermined distance h 1s vis-à-vis the active layer 13.
  • the Figure 3A is a schematic and partial view of the light-emitting diode illustrated in the fig.2A .
  • the nanometric particles 6.1 are preferably located at the interface with the first layer 11, and are arranged in an XY plane, at the distance h 1s from the optical dipoles ⁇ 1 .
  • the extraction layer 6 forms a second optically linear, homogeneous and isotropic medium of refractive index n 2 , and that the surrounding medium forms a third optically linear, homogeneous and isotropic medium of refractive index n 3 .
  • the distance h 2 is measured from the upper face 6a along the -Z direction. Also, a zero value h 2 corresponds to the upper face 6a. Sizing the thickness of the extraction layer 6 amounts to choosing the thickness along the Z axis of the dielectric material 6.2.
  • the ⁇ 2 optical dipoles are here associated with 6.1 quantum dots emitting in the red.
  • This figure also illustrates the evolution, as a function of the distance h 2 , of a parameter S 2 called selectivity representative of a difference between these two normalized lifetimes ⁇ n2,v , ⁇ n2,h .
  • the emitter dipoles ⁇ 2 can then be dimensioned, in particular the thickness of the dielectric material 6.2 of the extraction layer 6, so that the emitter dipoles ⁇ 2 are located at the distance h 2s from the upper face 6a, and therefore have the direction chosen.
  • the emitter dipoles ⁇ 2 can thus preferably have a horizontal orientation when the nanometric particles 6.1 are quantum dots, or have a vertical orientation when the nanometric particles 6.1 are metallic for a plasmonic effect.
  • the figure 4 is a flowchart illustrating the steps of a method of manufacturing a light-emitting diode 1 according to one embodiment.
  • the manufacturing process is illustrated here in the case of a light-emitting diode 1 comprising a semiconductor stack of inorganic type.
  • the first layer 11 is made of N-doped GaN
  • an active layer 13 is formed of an emissive quantum well layer of InGaN.
  • the extraction layer 6 is formed of a dielectric material 6.2 containing nanometric particles 6.1.
  • the materials of the first layer 11 and of the active layer 13 are chosen, which together form the first homogeneous medium of refractive index n 1 .
  • This is an N-doped GaN and InGaN, the refractive index of which is substantially equal for these two materials and corresponds to 2.4764 at the emission wavelength of 460 nm.
  • the refractive indices are not identical, one can define a average refractive index from, for example, a volume weighting of the refractive indices.
  • the material of the extraction layer 6 which forms the second homogeneous medium with a refractive index n 2 substantially equal to that of the dielectric material 6.2 is also chosen.
  • the distance h 1 here corresponds to the distance along the Z axis between, on the one hand the extraction layer 6 / first layer 11 interface, and on the other hand half the thickness of the active layer 13.
  • the active layer 13 is an emissive quantum well layer 13.1 3 nm thick, and it is sought to determine the thickness of the first layer 11 so that the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 (located in first approximation to the center of the active layer 13) are located at the distance h 1s determined to obtain a vertical dipole orientation.
  • a value h 1s of the distance h 1 is determined so that a lifetime of the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 having the vertical orientation ⁇ v is greater than that of the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 having the horizontal orientation ⁇ h .
  • the predetermined function g is used, expressing a relationship between a lifetime of an optical dipole having a predefined orientation ⁇ and the distance h. This function g is that described previously, which expresses the evolution of the normalized lifetime ⁇ n of an emitter dipole as a function of the distance h, by means of the normalized radiated optical power P/Po.
  • the evolution g h as a function of h 1 of the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1,h of an emitter dipole ⁇ 1 of horizontal orientation ⁇ h is determined, as well as the evolution g v the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1,v of an emitter dipole ⁇ 1 of vertical orientation ⁇ v , over a distance range ⁇ h 1ref ranging for example from 0 nm to 500 nm.
  • a value h 1s is determined such that the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1,v of the emitter dipole ⁇ 1 of vertical orientation ⁇ v is greater than the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1,h of the emitter dipole ⁇ 1 of horizontal orientation ⁇ h , that is to say here so that ⁇ n1,v (h 1s ) > ⁇ n1,h (h 1s ).
  • the value h 1s is advantageously determined so that the selectivity
  • max ⁇ h1ref (
  • a value h 2s of the distance h 2 is also determined so that a normalized lifetime ⁇ n2,s of the optical dipoles ⁇ 2 , having a chosen orientation ⁇ 2s (among the orientation horizontal ⁇ h and the vertical orientation ⁇ v ), or greater than the normalized lifetime ⁇ n2,ns of the optical dipoles ⁇ 2 having the non-chosen orientation ⁇ ns .
  • the evolution g h as a function of h 2 of the normalized lifetime ⁇ n2,h of an optical dipole ⁇ 2 of horizontal orientation ⁇ h is determined, as well as the evolution g v the normalized lifetime ⁇ n2,v of an optical dipole ⁇ 2 of vertical orientation ⁇ v , over a distance range ⁇ h 2ref ranging for example from 0 nm to 300 nm.
  • the normalized lifetime ⁇ n2,h of the optical dipole ⁇ 2 of chosen orientation is compared with the normalized lifetime ⁇ n2,v of the optical dipole ⁇ 2 of non-chosen orientation ⁇ n, v for all h 2 included in ⁇ h 2ref .
  • the selectivity parameter S 2 is advantageously determined such that, for all h 2 included in ⁇ h 2ref , the absolute value
  • a value h 2s is then determined such that the normalized lifetime ⁇ n2,s of the optical dipole ⁇ 2 of chosen orientation ⁇ s is greater than the normalized lifetime ⁇ n2,ns of the dipole optic ⁇ 2 of non-chosen orientation ⁇ ns , that is to say here so that ⁇ n2,s (h 2s ) > ⁇ n2,ns (h 2s ).
  • the value h 2s is advantageously determined so that the selectivity
  • max ⁇ h2ref (
  • the light-emitting diode 1 is manufactured so that the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 are located at the distance h 1s from the extraction layer 6.
  • the thickness of the first layer 11 so that the sum of this thickness and half of the active layer 13 is equal to the determined value h 1s , for example to within 10 nm, or even within 5 nm.
  • the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 associated with the radiative recombinations of the electron-hole pairs in the active layer 13 essentially have the vertical orientation ⁇ v .
  • the luminous efficiency of the light-emitting diode 1 is thus improved by a non-radiative coupling in the near field of the dipole-dipole type between the emitting dipoles ⁇ 1 and the optical dipoles ⁇ 2 .
  • the thickness of the extraction layer 6 is determined, in particular the thickness of the dielectric material 6.2, the nanometric particles 6.1 advantageously remaining at the interface with the first layer 11, so that the optical dipoles ⁇ 2 are located at the distance h 2s with respect to the air interface (face 6a), and thus have the chosen orientation ⁇ 2s . This also contributes to improving the light output of the light-emitting diode 1.
  • the manufacturing method may include a dimensioning phase of the second layer 12 placed between the active layer 13 and the reflective electrode 4 (anode).
  • this layer 12 it is also advantageous to dimension this layer 12 so that the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 have the vertical orientation ⁇ 1v .
  • the figure 5A is a schematic and partial view of the light-emitting diode illustrated in the fig.2A .
  • the second layer 12 and the active layer 13 form the same first homogeneous medium of refractive index n 1 .
  • the fourth optically linear, homogeneous and isotropic medium, of optical index n 4 is formed by the reflective electrode 4 of refractive index n 4 .
  • the active layer 13, and more specifically the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 are arranged at a distance h 1' vis-à-vis the reflective electrode 4.
  • the distance h 1' is measured from the reflective electrode 4 according to the +Z direction.
  • a value h 1′ of zero corresponds to the interface between the second layer 12 and the reflective electrode 4.
  • the figure 5B illustrates an example of changes, as a function of the distance h 1' , of the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1',v of a transmitter dipole ⁇ 1 of vertical orientation, and the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1',h of an emitter dipole ⁇ 1 of horizontal orientation. It also illustrates the evolution as a function of h 1' of the selectivity S 1' .
  • the first homogeneous medium of refractive index n 1 is formed of the second layer 12 of P-doped GaN and of an emissive layer of InGaN (no barrier layer of intrinsic GaN).
  • the fourth homogeneous medium is formed by the reflective electrode 4 made here of gold, whose optical index n 4 is equal to 1.3489+i ⁇ 1.8851 at 460 nm.
  • the normalized lifetime ⁇ n1' of emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 having a horizontal or vertical orientation increases from a zero value for h 1' equal to zero up to a first peak, then tends towards the same constant value by presenting damped oscillations.
  • the constant values are substantially equal for the two orientations.
  • the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 of vertical orientation are preponderant in the domains ⁇ h 2 , ⁇ h 4 , ⁇ h 6 of the range ⁇ h ref going from zero to 300 nm.
  • the transmitter dipoles ⁇ 1 of horizontal orientation are preponderant in the domains ⁇ h 1 , ⁇ h 3 , ⁇ h 5 , ⁇ h 7 .
  • a distance h 1s' comprised in the domain ⁇ h 2 or ⁇ h 4 for example, will make it possible to obtain radiative recombinations of the electron-hole pairs whose emitted radiation corresponds to that of emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 exhibiting an essentially vertical orientation.
  • the lifetime of the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 having the chosen orientation be greater than that of the dipoles transmitters with the other orientation.
  • the selectivity S 1' thus vanishes between each domain ⁇ h i and has a maximum value for each of them.
  • the selectivity has a value of 0.18 for 18nm in ⁇ h 1 (horizontal orientation), a value of 0.36 for 46nm in ⁇ h 2 (vertical orientation), a value of 0.15 for 90nm in ⁇ h 3 (horizontal orientation) , and a value of 0.08 for 140nm in ⁇ h 4 (vertical orientation). It therefore appears that the different domains do not present a selectivity S 1' of the same intensity, a sign that the normalized lifetimes evolve as a function of the distance h 1' in the form of damped oscillations.
  • the distance h 1s' is chosen in one of the domains ⁇ h i of the range ⁇ h 1ref for which the lifetime of the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 having the orientation vertical is greater than that of the emitter dipoles ⁇ 1 having the horizontal orientation.
  • the distance h 1s' is advantageously determined so that the selectivity S 1' exhibits a maximum in the distance range ⁇ h 1ref determined.
  • the distance h 1s' is advantageous for the distance h 1s' to be equal to 54 nm insofar as the selectivity S 1' has a maximum equal to 0.38.

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Description

DOMAINE TECHNIQUETECHNICAL AREA

Le domaine de l'invention est celui des procédés de fabrication de diodes électroluminescentes comportant un empilement semiconducteur de couches inorganiques ou organiques, dont une couche active émissive, ainsi qu'une couche d'extraction.The field of the invention is that of methods for manufacturing light-emitting diodes comprising a semiconductor stack of inorganic or organic layers, including an emissive active layer, as well as an extraction layer.

ÉTAT DE LA TECHNIQUE ANTÉRIEUREPRIOR ART

La figure 1A illustre de manière partielle et schématique un exemple d'une diode électroluminescente 1 comportant un empilement de couches semiconductrices, ici inorganiques, dont une première couche 11 dopée N, une deuxième couche 12 dopée P, et une couche active 13 disposée entre les deux couches dopées 11, 12 et au niveau de laquelle est émis l'essentiel du rayonnement lumineux.The Figure 1A partially and schematically illustrates an example of a light-emitting diode 1 comprising a stack of semiconductor layers, here inorganic, including a first N-doped layer 11, a second P-doped layer 12, and an active layer 13 arranged between the two doped layers 11, 12 and at which most of the light radiation is emitted.

La diode électroluminescente 1 repose ici sur un substrat 2 comportant une couche conductrice 3, au contact de laquelle se situe une électrode 4 avantageusement réflectrice formant l'anode. Une électrode 5 de préférence transparente formant une cathode repose sur la couche 11 dopée N. L'électrode réflectrice 4 est de préférence réalisée en un matériau métallique.The light-emitting diode 1 rests here on a substrate 2 comprising a conductive layer 3, in contact with which there is located an advantageously reflective electrode 4 forming the anode. A preferably transparent electrode 5 forming a cathode rests on the N-doped layer 11. The reflective electrode 4 is preferably made of a metallic material.

La couche active 13 peut être formée, dans le cas d'une jonction PN, par l'interface des deux couches dopées 11, 12 au contact l'une de l'autre, ou dans le cas d'une jonction PIN, par au moins une couche intrinsèque 13 (i.e. non intentionnellement dopée) pouvant comporter un ou plusieurs puits quantiques. Chaque puits quantique peut être formé par une couche présentant une énergie de bande interdite plus faible que celle des deux couches barrières entre lesquelles elle est située, ou peut être formé par des boîtes quantiques (quantum dots, en anglais).The active layer 13 can be formed, in the case of a PN junction, by the interface of the two doped layers 11, 12 in contact with one another, or in the case of a PIN junction, by at at least one intrinsic layer 13 (ie not intentionally doped) which may comprise one or more quantum wells. Each quantum well may be formed by a layer having a band gap energy lower than that of the two barrier layers between which it is located, or may be formed by quantum dots .

Les porteurs de charge (électrons et trous) sont introduits dans l'empilement semiconducteur par les électrodes 4, 5, puis diffusent jusqu'à la couche active 13 où ils se recombinent de manière radiative. Le rayonnement lumineux associé aux recombinaisons radiatives des paires électron-trou dans la couche active 13 correspond au rayonnement dipolaire électrique émis par un dipôle dit émetteur qui oscille de manière harmonique suivant l'axe de son moment dipolaire µ (également appelé TDMV, pour Transition Dipole Moment Vector, en anglais).The charge carriers (electrons and holes) are introduced into the semiconductor stack by the electrodes 4, 5, then diffuse to the active layer 13 where they recombine in a radiative manner. The light radiation associated with the radiative recombinations of the electron-hole pairs in the active layer 13 corresponds to the electric dipole radiation emitted by a so-called emitter dipole which oscillates in a harmonically along the axis of its dipole moment µ (also called TDMV, for Transition Dipole Moment Vector ).

La figure 1B illustre de manière schématique un dipôle émetteur situé dans un premier milieu (contenant la couche active) optiquement linéaire, homogène et isotrope, de constante diélectrique ε1 et espacé d'un deuxième milieu optiquement linéaire, homogène et isotrope de constante diélectrique ε2. Il présente ici une orientation inclinée d'un angle θ vis-à-vis de l'axe Z orthogonal au plan XY de la couche active. Les lignes de champ s'étendent suivant une symétrie axiale autour de l'axe du moment dipolaire µ. Le vecteur d'onde k est orthogonal à la tangente en un point quelconque d'une ligne de champ. Comme l'indique l'article de Schmidt et al intitulé Emitter Orientation as a Key Parameter in Organic Light-Emitting Diodes, Phys. Rev. Applied 8,037001 (2017 ), l'orientation des dipôles émetteurs est un paramètre qui peut impacter le rendement lumineux d'une diode émissive telle qu'une diode électroluminescente organique.The figure 1B schematically illustrates an emitter dipole located in a first medium (containing the active layer) optically linear, homogeneous and isotropic, of dielectric constant ε 1 and spaced from a second optically linear, homogeneous and isotropic medium of dielectric constant ε 2 . Here it has an orientation inclined at an angle θ with respect to the Z axis orthogonal to the XY plane of the active layer. The field lines extend in axial symmetry around the axis of the dipole moment µ . The wave vector k is orthogonal to the tangent at any point on a field line. As stated in the article by Schmidt et al entitled Emitter Orientation as a Key Parameter in Organic Light-Emitting Diodes, Phys. Rev. Applied 8.037001 (2017 ), the orientation of the emitter dipoles is a parameter which can impact the luminous efficiency of an emitting diode such as an organic light-emitting diode.

US 2014/008676 A1 , US 2012/153254 A1 , EP 1 855 327 A2 et EP 2 362 448 A1 divulguent des procédés de fabrication de diodes électroluminescentes connus de l'art antérieur. US 2014/008676 A1 , US 2012/153254 A1 , EP 1 855 327 A2 and EP 2 362 448 A1 disclose methods of manufacturing light-emitting diodes known from the prior art.

Il existe ainsi un besoin de disposer d'un procédé de fabrication d'au moins une diode électroluminescente dont le rendement lumineux est amélioré.There is thus a need to have a method for manufacturing at least one light-emitting diode whose luminous efficiency is improved.

EXPOSÉ DE L'INVENTIONDISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION

L'invention a pour objectif de remédier au moins en partie aux inconvénients de l'art antérieur, et plus particulièrement de proposer un procédé de fabrication d'au moins une diode électroluminescente présentant un rendement lumineux amélioré.The object of the invention is to remedy at least in part the drawbacks of the prior art, and more particularly to propose a method of manufacturing at least one light-emitting diode having an improved luminous efficiency.

Pour cela, l'objet de l'invention est un procédé de fabrication d'au moins une diode électroluminescente comportant : un empilement semiconducteur formé d'une première couche semiconductrice, d'une deuxième couche semiconductrice, et d'une couche active située entre les deux couches semiconductrices; et une couche d'extraction, réalisée en un matériau diélectrique transparent comportant des particules nanométriques, s'étendant au contact de la première couche semiconductrice. Le procédé comporte les étapes suivantes :

  • choix des matériaux de la première couche semiconductrice et de la couche active, ainsi que de la couche d'extraction ;
  • détermination d'une première distance non nulle entre, d'une part, des dipôles dits émetteurs associés aux recombinaisons radiatives de paires électron-trou dans la couche active, et d'autre part, la couche d'extraction, pour laquelle :
    • o une durée de vie des dipôles émetteurs, présentant une orientation dite verticale suivant un axe orthogonal au plan de la couche active, est supérieure à la durée de vie des dipôles émetteurs présentant une orientation dite horizontale suivant un axe parallèle au plan de la couche active, à partir d'une fonction prédéterminée exprimant une évolution d'un paramètre représentatif de la durée de vie d'un dipôle émetteur présentant une orientation prédéfinie en fonction de sa distance à la couche d'extraction, compte tenu des propriétés optiques desdits matériaux choisis ;
    • o des dipôles optiques associés aux particules nanométriques sont situés en champ proche des dipôles émetteurs, de manière à autoriser un couplage non radiatif de type dipôle-dipôle entre les dipôles émetteurs et les dipôles optiques ;
  • réalisation de la diode électroluminescente, une épaisseur de la première couche semiconductrice étant telle que les dipôles émetteurs sont situés à la première distance déterminée vis-à-vis de la couche d'extraction, les dipôles émetteurs étant alors orientés de manière orthogonale au plan de la couche active.
For this, the object of the invention is a method of manufacturing at least one light-emitting diode comprising: a semiconductor stack formed of a first semiconductor layer, of a second semiconductor layer, and of an active layer located between the two semiconductor layers; and an extraction layer, made of a transparent dielectric material comprising nanometric particles, extending in contact with the first semiconductor layer. The process comprises the following steps:
  • choice of the materials of the first semiconductor layer and of the active layer, as well as of the extraction layer;
  • determination of a first non-zero distance between, on the one hand, so-called emitter dipoles associated with the radiative recombinations of electron-hole pairs in the active layer, and on the other hand, the extraction layer, for which:
    • o a lifetime of the transmitter dipoles, having a so-called vertical orientation along an axis orthogonal to the plane of the active layer, is greater than the lifetime of the transmitter dipoles having a so-called horizontal orientation along an axis parallel to the plane of the active layer, from a predetermined function expressing an evolution of a parameter representative of the lifetime of an emitter dipole having a predefined orientation as a function of its distance from the extraction layer, taking into account the optical properties of said selected materials;
    • o optical dipoles associated with the nanometric particles are located in the near field of the emitter dipoles, so as to allow non-radiative coupling of the dipole-dipole type between the emitter dipoles and the optical dipoles;
  • production of the light-emitting diode, a thickness of the first semiconductor layer being such that the emitter dipoles are located at the first determined distance with respect to the extraction layer, the emitter dipoles then being oriented orthogonally to the plane of the active layer.

Certains aspects préférés mais non limitatifs de ce procédé sont les suivants.Some preferred but non-limiting aspects of this method are as follows.

Les particules nanométriques peuvent être des boîtes quantiques réalisés en des nanocristaux semiconducteurs, et/ou être réalisées en au moins un matériau métallique.The nanometric particles can be quantum dots made of semiconductor nanocrystals, and/or be made of at least one metallic material.

Les particules nanométriques peuvent présenter un diamètre moyen compris entre 0.2nm et 500nm.The nanometric particles can have an average diameter of between 0.2 nm and 500 nm.

Les particules nanométriques peuvent s'étendre dans un plan parallèle à la couche active, et être disposées à l'interface avec la première couche semiconductrice.The nanometric particles can extend in a plane parallel to the active layer, and be arranged at the interface with the first semiconductor layer.

La première distance déterminée peut être inférieure ou égale à 50nm, optimisant ainsi le couplage non radiatif de type dipôle-dipôle entre les dipôles émetteurs et les dipôles optiques.The first distance determined can be less than or equal to 50 nm, thus optimizing the non-radiative coupling of the dipole-dipole type between the emitting dipoles and the optical dipoles.

La première distance déterminée peut être définie suivant un axe orthogonal au plan de la couche active, à partir d'une interface entre la couche d'extraction et la première couche semiconductrice jusqu'à un plan passant par la moitié d'une épaisseur de la couche active.The first determined distance can be defined along an axis orthogonal to the plane of the active layer, from an interface between the extraction layer and the first semiconductor layer to a plane passing through half a thickness of the active layer.

La couche active peut comporter au moins une couche émissive de puits quantique, et une couche barrière située entre la première couche semiconductrice et la couche émissive, la distance déterminée étant définie suivant un axe orthogonal au plan de la couche active, entre d'une part l'interface entre la couche d'extraction et la première couche semiconductrice, et d'autre part un plan passant par la moitié de l'épaisseur de la couche émissive.The active layer may comprise at least one quantum well emissive layer, and a barrier layer located between the first semiconductor layer and the emissive layer, the determined distance being defined along an axis orthogonal to the plane of the active layer, between on the one hand the interface between the extraction layer and the first semiconductor layer, and on the other hand a plane passing through half the thickness of the emissive layer.

Le procédé peut comporter une étape de détermination d'une deuxième distance non nulle entre les dipôles optiques associés aux particules nanométriques et un milieu environnant s'étendant au contact d'une face supérieure de la couche d'extraction opposée à la première couche semiconductrice, comportant les sous-étapes suivantes :

  • choix d'une orientation des dipôles optiques vis-à-vis d'un plan de la couche d'extraction, parmi : une orientation horizontale pour laquelle les dipôles optiques sont orientés de manière parallèle au plan de la couche d'extraction, et une orientation verticale pour laquelle les dipôles optiques sont orientés de manière orthogonale au plan de la couche d'extraction ;
  • détermination de la deuxième distance entre les dipôles optiques et le milieu environnant, pour laquelle une durée de vie des dipôles optiques présentant l'orientation choisie est supérieure à celle des dipôles optiques présentant l'orientation non choisie, à partir d'une fonction prédéterminée exprimant une évolution d'un paramètre représentatif de la durée de vie d'un dipôle optique présentant une orientation prédéfinie en fonction de sa distance au milieu environnant, compte tenu des propriétés optiques de la couche d'extraction et du milieu environnant ;
  • réalisation de la diode électroluminescente, une épaisseur du matériau diélectrique de la couche d'extraction étant telle que les dipôles optiques sont situés à la deuxième distance déterminée vis-à-vis du milieu environnant, les dipôles optiques étant alors orientés selon l'orientation choisie vis à vis du plan de la couche d'extraction.
The method may include a step of determining a second non-zero distance between the optical dipoles associated with the nanometric particles and a surrounding medium extending in contact with an upper face of the extraction layer opposite the first semiconductor layer, comprising the following sub-steps:
  • choice of an orientation of the optical dipoles with respect to a plane of the extraction layer, among: a horizontal orientation for which the optical dipoles are oriented parallel to the plane of the extraction layer, and a vertical orientation for which the optical dipoles are oriented orthogonally to the plane of the extraction layer;
  • determination of the second distance between the optical dipoles and the surrounding medium, for which a lifetime of the optical dipoles having the chosen orientation is greater than that of the optical dipoles having the non-chosen orientation, from a predetermined function expressing an evolution of a parameter representative of the lifetime of an optical dipole having a predefined orientation as a function of its distance from the surrounding medium, taking into account the optical properties of the extraction layer and of the surrounding medium;
  • production of the light-emitting diode, a thickness of the dielectric material of the extraction layer being such that the optical dipoles are located at the second determined distance with respect to the surrounding medium, the optical dipoles then being oriented according to the chosen orientation with respect to the plane of the extraction layer.

L'étape de détermination de la deuxième distance peut comporter les sous-étapes suivantes :

  • détermination, sur une gamme de distance prédéfinie, de l'évolution en fonction de la distance du paramètre représentatif de la durée de vie du dipôle optique présentant l'orientation choisie, et de l'évolution en fonction de la distance du paramètre représentatif de la durée de vie du dipôle optique présentant l'orientation non choisie ;
  • détermination d'un paramètre dit d'écart représentatif d'un écart du paramètre représentatif de la durée de vie du dipôle optique présentant l'orientation choisie vis-à-vis du paramètre représentatif de la durée de vie du dipôle optique présentant l'orientation non choisie, sur ladite gamme de distance prédéfinie ;
  • détermination d'une distance non nulle de sorte que :
    • o le paramètre représentatif de la durée de vie du dipôle optique présentant l'orientation choisie est supérieur, pour la distance déterminée, à celui du paramètre représentatif de la durée de vie du dipôle optique présentant l'orientation non choisie, et que
    • o le paramètre d'écart présente, pour la distance déterminée, une valeur maximale sur au moins une partie de la gamme de distance.
The step of determining the second distance may comprise the following sub-steps:
  • determination, over a range of predefined distances, of the evolution as a function of the distance of the parameter representative of the lifetime of the optical dipole having the chosen orientation, and of the evolution as a function of the distance of the parameter representative of the lifetime of the optical dipole presenting the non-chosen orientation;
  • determination of a so-called deviation parameter representative of a deviation of the parameter representative of the lifetime of the optical dipole having the chosen orientation with respect to the parameter representative of the lifetime of the optical dipole having the orientation not chosen, over said predefined distance range;
  • determination of a non-zero distance so that:
    • o the parameter representative of the lifetime of the optical dipole having the chosen orientation is greater, for the determined distance, than that of the parameter representative of the lifetime of the optical dipole having the non-chosen orientation, and that
    • o the deviation parameter has, for the determined distance, a maximum value over at least part of the distance range.

Le procédé peut comporter :

  • une étape de détermination d'une troisième distance non nulle entre les dipôles émetteurs et une électrode réflectrice s'étendant au contact de la deuxième couche semiconductrice, pour laquelle une durée de vie des dipôles émetteurs présentant l'orientation verticale est supérieure à celle des dipôles émetteurs présentant l'orientation horizontale, à partir d'une fonction prédéterminée exprimant une évolution d'un paramètre représentatif de la durée de vie d'un dipôle émetteur présentant une orientation prédéfinie en fonction de sa distance à l'électrode réflectrice, compte tenu des propriétés optiques de la couche active et de la deuxième couche semiconductrice, et de l'électrode réflectrice ;
  • réalisation de la diode électroluminescente, une épaisseur de la deuxième couche semiconductrice étant telle que les dipôles émetteurs sont situés à la troisième distance déterminée vis-à-vis d'électrode réflectrice, les dipôles émetteurs étant alors orientés de manière orthogonale au plan de la couche active.
The process may include:
  • a step of determining a third non-zero distance between the emitter dipoles and a reflective electrode extending in contact with the second semiconductor layer, for which a lifetime of the emitter dipoles having the vertical orientation is greater than that of the dipoles emitters having the horizontal orientation, from a predetermined function expressing a change in a parameter representative of the lifetime of an emitter dipole having a predefined orientation as a function of its distance from the reflective electrode, taking into account the optical properties of the active layer and of the second semiconductor layer, and of the reflective electrode;
  • production of the light-emitting diode, a thickness of the second semiconductor layer being such that the emitter dipoles are located at the third determined distance vis-à-vis the reflective electrode, the emitter dipoles then being oriented orthogonally to the plane of the layer active.

L'électrode réflectrice peut être une anode adaptée à injecter des trous dans l'empilement semiconducteur, et la deuxième couche semiconductrice peut être réalisée en un matériau cristallin semiconducteur dopé de type P, ou être réalisée en un matériau semiconducteur organique conducteur de trous.The reflective electrode can be an anode suitable for injecting holes into the semiconductor stack, and the second semiconductor layer can be made of a P-type doped semiconductor crystalline material, or be made of a hole-conducting organic semiconductor material.

La première couche semiconductrice peut être réalisée en un matériau cristallin semiconducteur dopé de type N, ou être réalisée en un matériau semiconducteur organique conducteur d'électrons.The first semiconductor layer can be made of an N-type doped semiconductor crystalline material, or be made of an organic semiconductor material that conducts electrons.

BRÈVE DESCRIPTION DES DESSINSBRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

D'autres aspects, buts, avantages et caractéristiques de l'invention apparaîtront mieux à la lecture de la description détaillée suivante de formes de réalisation préférées de celle-ci, donnée à titre d'exemple non limitatif, et faite en référence aux dessins annexés sur lesquels :

  • la figure 1A, déjà décrite, est une vue en coupe, schématique et partielle, d'une diode électroluminescente selon un exemple de l'art antérieur ;
  • la figure 1B, déjà décrite, illustre schématiquement un dipôle émetteur µ dans un premier milieu homogène et situé à une distance h d'un deuxième milieu homogène, émettant un rayonnement lumineux correspondant à une recombinaison radiative d'une paire électron-trou ;
  • la figure 2A est une vue en coupe, schématique et partielle, d'une diode électroluminescente comportant une couche d'extraction, obtenue selon un procédé de fabrication selon un mode de réalisation, illustrant des dipôles émetteurs µ1 dits donneurs situés dans une couche active et disposés à une distance h1 de la couche d'extraction, ainsi que des dipôles optiques µ2 dits accepteurs situés dans la couche d'extraction ;
  • la figure 2B illustre un exemple d'évolution, en fonction de la distance h1, de la durée de vie normalisée τn1,v d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation verticale et celle τn1,h d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation horizontale, dans le cas où le premier milieu homogène (première couche et couche active) est réalisé à base de GaN, et où le deuxième milieu homogène (couche d'extraction) est réalisé à base d'un matériau diélectrique, pour une longueur d'onde d'émission λe égale à 460nm ;
  • la figure 3A est une vue en coupe, schématique et partielle, de la diode électroluminescente déjà illustrée sur la fig.2A, illustrant les dipôles optiques µ2 situés dans la couche d'extraction et disposés à une distance h2 du milieu environnant surplombant la couche d'extraction ;
  • la figure 3B illustre un exemple d'évolution, en fonction de la distance h2, de la durée de vie normalisée τn2,v d'un dipôle optique µ2 d'orientation verticale et celle τn2,h d'un dipôle optique µ2 d'orientation horizontale, dans le cas où le deuxième milieu homogène (couche d'extraction) est réalisé à base d'un matériau diélectrique, et où un troisième milieu homogène (milieu environnant) est de l'air, pour une longueur d'onde d'émission égale à 620nm ;
  • la figure 4 illustre un organigramme de différentes étapes d'un procédé de fabrication d'une diode électroluminescente selon un mode de réalisation ;
  • la figure 5A est une vue en coupe, schématique et partielle, de la diode électroluminescente déjà illustrée sur la fig.2A, illustrant les dipôles émetteurs µ1 situés dans la couche active et disposés à une distance h1' d'une électrode réflectrice (anode) ;
  • la figure 5B illustre un exemple d'évolution, en fonction de la distance h1', de la durée de vie normalisée τn1',v d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation verticale et celle τn1',h d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation horizontale, dans le cas où le premier milieu homogène (deuxième couche et couche active) est réalisé à base de GaN, et où un quatrième milieu homogène (électrode réflectrice) est réalisé en or, pour une longueur d'onde d'émission λe égale à 460nm.
Other aspects, aims, advantages and characteristics of the invention will appear better on reading the following detailed description of preferred embodiments thereof, given by way of non-limiting example, and made with reference to the appended drawings. on which ones :
  • the Figure 1A , already described, is a sectional view, schematic and partial, of a light-emitting diode according to an example of the prior art;
  • the figure 1B , already described, schematically illustrates an emitter dipole µ in a first homogeneous medium and located at a distance h from a second homogeneous medium, emitting light radiation corresponding to radiative recombination of an electron-hole pair;
  • the figure 2A is a schematic and partial cross-sectional view of a light-emitting diode comprising an extraction layer, obtained according to a manufacturing method according to one embodiment, illustrating emitter dipoles µ 1 called donors located in an active layer and arranged at a distance h 1 from the extraction layer, as well as optical dipoles µ 2 called acceptors located in the extraction layer;
  • the figure 2B illustrates an example of evolution, as a function of the distance h 1 , of the normalized lifetime τ n1,v of an emitter dipole µ 1 of vertical orientation and that τ n1,h of an emitter dipole µ 1 d horizontal orientation, in the case where the first homogeneous medium (first layer and active layer) is made from GaN, and where the second homogeneous medium (extraction layer) is made from a dielectric material, for a emission wavelength λ e equal to 460 nm;
  • the Figure 3A is a sectional view, schematic and partial, of the light-emitting diode already illustrated on the fig.2A , illustrating the optical dipoles µ 2 located in the extraction layer and arranged at a distance h 2 from the surrounding medium overhanging the extraction layer;
  • the Figure 3B illustrates an example of evolution, as a function of the distance h 2 , of the normalized lifetime τ n2,v of an optical dipole µ 2 of vertical orientation and that τ n2,h of an optical dipole µ 2 d horizontal orientation, in the case where the second homogeneous medium (extraction layer) is made from a dielectric material, and where a third homogeneous medium (surrounding medium) is air, for a wavelength of emission equal to 620 nm;
  • the figure 4 illustrates a flowchart of different steps of a method of manufacturing a light-emitting diode according to one embodiment;
  • the figure 5A is a sectional view, schematic and partial, of the light-emitting diode already illustrated on the fig.2A , illustrating the emitter dipoles µ 1 located in the active layer and arranged at a distance h 1' from a reflective electrode (anode);
  • the figure 5B illustrates an example of evolution, as a function of distance h 1' , of the normalized lifetime τ n1',v of an emitter dipole µ 1 of vertical orientation and that τ n1',h of an emitter dipole µ 1 of horizontal orientation, in the case where the first homogeneous medium (second layer and active layer) is made from GaN, and where a fourth medium homogeneous (reflecting electrode) is made of gold, for an emission wavelength λ e equal to 460 nm.

EXPOSÉ DÉTAILLÉ DE MODES DE RÉALISATION PARTICULIERSDETAILED DISCUSSION OF PARTICULAR EMBODIMENTS

Sur les figures et dans la suite de la description, les mêmes références représentent les éléments identiques ou similaires. De plus, les différents éléments ne sont pas représentés à l'échelle de manière à privilégier la clarté des figures. Par ailleurs, les différents modes de réalisation et variantes ne sont pas exclusifs les uns des autres et peuvent être combinés entre eux. Sauf indication contraire, les termes « sensiblement », « environ », « de l'ordre de » signifient à 10% près, et de préférence à 5% près. Par ailleurs, les termes « compris entre ... et ... » et équivalents signifient que les bornes sont incluses, sauf mention contraire.In the figures and in the remainder of the description, the same references represent identical or similar elements. In addition, the various elements are not shown to scale so as to favor the clarity of the figures. Furthermore, the different embodiments and variants are not mutually exclusive and can be combined with each other. Unless otherwise indicated, the terms “substantially”, “approximately”, “of the order of” mean to within 10%, and preferably within 5%. Furthermore, the terms "between ... and ..." and equivalents mean that the terminals are included, unless otherwise stated.

L'invention porte sur un procédé de fabrication d'au moins une diode électroluminescente présentant un rendement lumineux amélioré. Le rendement lumineux est défini ici comme le rapport du flux lumineux émis par la diode électroluminescente sur la puissance électrique injectée, et correspond à l'efficacité quantique externe (EQE). Il est égal au produit du rendement quantique interne (IQE) et de l'efficacité d'extraction lumineuse. Le rendement quantique interne est le rapport du nombre de photons générés par recombinaison radiative sur le nombre d'électrons injectés par la cathode, et l'efficacité d'extraction lumineuse est le rapport du nombre de photons émis hors de la diode sur le nombre de photons générés.The invention relates to a method for manufacturing at least one light-emitting diode having an improved luminous efficiency. The luminous efficiency is defined here as the ratio of the luminous flux emitted by the light-emitting diode to the electrical power injected, and corresponds to the external quantum efficiency (EQE). It is equal to the product of the internal quantum efficiency (IQE) and the light extraction efficiency. The internal quantum efficiency is the ratio of the number of photons generated by radiative recombination to the number of electrons injected by the cathode, and the light extraction efficiency is the ratio of the number of photons emitted out of the diode to the number of generated photons.

Pour cela, une première couche de l'empilement semiconducteur de la diode électroluminescente est revêtue au moins en partie par une couche d'extraction destinée notamment à augmenter l'efficacité d'extraction lumineuse. Cette couche d'extraction est formée d'au moins un matériau diélectrique et transparent au rayonnement lumineux émis par la couche active de la diode électroluminescente. Elle comporte également, situées dans le matériau diélectrique, des particules nanométriques de type boîtes quantiques et/ou particules métalliques, de sorte que l'extraction lumineuse induit un couplage en champ proche de type dipôle-dipôle entre les dipôles optiques dits donneurs associés à la couche active et les dipôles optiques dits accepteurs associés aux particules nanométriques.For this, a first layer of the semiconductor stack of the light-emitting diode is coated at least in part with an extraction layer intended in particular to increase the efficiency of light extraction. This extraction layer is formed of at least one dielectric material and transparent to the light radiation emitted by the active layer of the light-emitting diode. It also comprises, located in the dielectric material, nanometric particles of the quantum box type and/or metallic particles, so that the light extraction induces a near-field coupling of the dipole-dipole type between the so-called donor optical dipoles associated with the active layer and the so-called acceptor optical dipoles associated with the nanometric particles.

De plus, comme explicité en détail par la suite, on dimensionne la première couche semiconductrice de sorte que les dipôles optiques donneurs associés aux recombinaisons radiatives des paires électron-trou dans la couche active présentent une orientation verticale prédominante sur une orientation horizontale. Le caractère horizontal ou vertical de l'orientation du dipôle optique est relatif à un plan suivant lequel s'étend la couche active de la diode électroluminescente. Par ailleurs, l'orientation d'un dipôle émetteur correspond à l'angle d'inclinaison θ que forme le moment dipolaire µ du dipôle optique vis-à-vis d'un axe orthogonal au plan de la couche active.Moreover, as explained in detail later, the first semiconductor layer is dimensioned so that the donor optical dipoles associated with the recombinations radiatives of the electron-hole pairs in the active layer exhibit a predominant vertical orientation over a horizontal orientation. The horizontal or vertical character of the orientation of the optical dipole is relative to a plane along which the active layer of the light-emitting diode extends. Furthermore, the orientation of an emitter dipole corresponds to the angle of inclination θ formed by the dipole moment µ of the optical dipole with respect to an axis orthogonal to the plane of the active layer.

La figure 2A est une vue en coupe, schématique et partielle, d'un exemple de diode électroluminescente 1. Cette diode électroluminescente 1 est similaire à celle décrite précédemment, et en diffère essentiellement en ce qu'elle comporte une couche d'extraction 6 et a été obtenue par un procédé de fabrication selon un mode de réalisation.The figure 2A is a schematic partial sectional view of an example of a light-emitting diode 1. This light-emitting diode 1 is similar to that described above, and differs essentially in that it comprises an extraction layer 6 and was obtained by a manufacturing method according to one embodiment.

On définit ici et pour la suite de la description un repère direct orthogonal XYZ, où les axes X et Y forment un plan parallèle au plan principal d'un substrat (non représenté) sur lequel repose la diode électroluminescente 1, et où l'axe Z est orienté de manière orthogonale au plan XY et en direction de la couche d'extraction 6. Ici, la couche active 13 s'étend suivant le plan XY.An orthogonal direct reference XYZ is defined here and for the rest of the description, where the axes X and Y form a plane parallel to the main plane of a substrate (not shown) on which the light-emitting diode 1 rests, and where the axis Z is oriented orthogonally to the XY plane and in the direction of the extraction layer 6. Here, the active layer 13 extends along the XY plane.

La diode électroluminescente 1 comporte ainsi un empilement semiconducteur formé d'une première couche 11, d'une couche active 13, et d'une deuxième couche 12. Dans cet exemple, l'empilement semiconducteur est réalisé à base d'un matériau semiconducteur cristallin inorganique, mais en variante, il peut être réalisé à base d'un matériau semiconducteur organique (OLED). La diode électroluminescente 1 peut comporter des couches supplémentaires non représentées, par exemple une couche de blocage d'électrons, une couche tampon d'adaptation du paramètre de maille, etc...The light-emitting diode 1 thus comprises a semiconductor stack formed of a first layer 11, an active layer 13, and a second layer 12. In this example, the semiconductor stack is made from a crystalline semiconductor material inorganic, but as a variant, it can be produced based on an organic semiconductor material (OLED). The light-emitting diode 1 may comprise additional layers not shown, for example an electron blocking layer, a lattice parameter adaptation buffer layer, etc.

Par « réalisé à base de matériau semiconducteur », on entend que l'empilement semiconducteur est réalisé en ce matériau semiconducteur ou en un ou plusieurs composés comportant ce matériau semiconducteur. A titre d'exemple, l'empilement semiconducteur est réalisé à base d'un composé III-V, par exemple à base de GaN, et peut ainsi comporter au moins une couche semiconductrice en GaN dopé ou non, et au moins une couche semiconductrice en un composé comportant du GaN, par exemple en InGaN, AIGaN, InAlGaN, voire est réalisé à base d'InP, par exemple du type AlInGaP, etc.By “made from semiconductor material”, is meant that the semiconductor stack is made from this semiconductor material or from one or more compounds comprising this semiconductor material. By way of example, the semiconductor stack is made based on a III-V compound, for example based on GaN, and can thus comprise at least one doped or undoped GaN semiconductor layer, and at least one into a compound comprising GaN, for example InGaN, AlGaN, InAlGaN, or even is made from InP, for example of the AlInGaP type, etc.

Notons comme indiqué précédemment que la diode électroluminescente 1 peut être une diode organique, auquel cas elle est formée de deux électrodes anodique et cathodique entre lesquelles sont empilées des couches semiconductrices organiques, dont une couche de transport d'électrons (ETL), une couche active (EML) et une couche de transport de trous (HTL).Note as indicated above that the light-emitting diode 1 can be an organic diode, in which case it is formed of two anodic and cathodic electrodes between which are stacked organic semiconductor layers, including an electron transport layer (ETL), an active layer (EML) and a hole transport layer (HTL).

Dans cet exemple où la diode électroluminescente 1 est réalisée à base d'un matériau inorganique, l'empilement semiconducteur est réalisé à base de GaN, la première couche 11 est en GaN dopé N, la deuxième couche 12 est en GaN dopé P. La couche active 13 comporte ici une couche 13.1 de puits quantique en InGaN intrinsèque située entre deux couches barrières 13.2 en GaN intrinsèque. Bien entendu, la couche active 13 peut comporter plusieurs couches de puits quantique situées entre deux couches barrières. L'électrode réflectrice 4 est réalisée en un ou plusieurs matériaux métalliques choisis parmi l'argent, l'aluminium, le cuivre, le titane, l'or, le nickel, l'iridium, le tungstène, l'indium, entre autres. Elle s'étend au contact de la deuxième couche 12. Elle est dite réflectrice dans la mesure où son coefficient de réflexion est au moins égal à 75%, au moins égal à 85%, voire à 95%, voire encore davantage, à la longueur d'onde d'émission de la diode électroluminescente 1. La couche active 13 s'étend suivant un plan XY parallèle à celui de la couche d'extraction 6. Une électrode cathodique (non représentée) peut s'étendre au contact de la première couche 11, par exemple de manière coplanaire à la couche d'extraction 6.In this example where the light-emitting diode 1 is made from an inorganic material, the semiconductor stack is made from GaN, the first layer 11 is made of N-doped GaN, the second layer 12 is made of P-doped GaN. active layer 13 here comprises a quantum well layer 13.1 of intrinsic InGaN located between two barrier layers 13.2 of intrinsic GaN. Of course, the active layer 13 can include several quantum well layers located between two barrier layers. The reflective electrode 4 is made of one or more metallic materials chosen from silver, aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, nickel, iridium, tungsten, indium, among others. It extends in contact with the second layer 12. It is said to be reflective insofar as its reflection coefficient is at least equal to 75%, at least equal to 85%, or even 95%, or even more, at the emission wavelength of the light-emitting diode 1. The active layer 13 extends along an XY plane parallel to that of the extraction layer 6. A cathode electrode (not shown) can extend in contact with the first layer 11, for example coplanar with the extraction layer 6.

La couche d'extraction 6 est adaptée à permettre un couplage non radiatif en champ proche de type dipôle-dipôle avec la couche active 13, améliorant ainsi l'efficacité d'extraction lumineuse et donc les performances de la diode électroluminescente 1. Elle s'étend au contact de la première couche 11 (ici réalisée en GaN dopé N) et la revêt au moins partiellement (notamment lorsqu'une autre partie de la surface de la première couche 11 est revêtue par l'électrode cathodique).The extraction layer 6 is adapted to allow a non-radiative coupling in the near field of the dipole-dipole type with the active layer 13, thus improving the light extraction efficiency and therefore the performance of the light-emitting diode 1. It extends in contact with the first layer 11 (here made of N-doped GaN) and coats it at least partially (in particular when another part of the surface of the first layer 11 is coated by the cathode electrode).

La couche d'extraction 6 est formée d'un matériau diélectrique 6.2 et transparent à la longueur d'onde d'émission de la couche active 13 qui forme une matrice liante dans laquelle sont situés des particules nanométriques 6.1. Le matériau diélectrique transparent 6.2 présente un coefficient de transmission du rayonnement incident au moins égal à 50%, de préférence au moins égal à 75%, voire à 90%, voire davantage. Il peut être choisi parmi le silicone, le polysiloxane, les PDMS, le PMMA, le PVA, les couches minérales à base d'oxyde de type sol-gel tel que le SiO2, Al2O3, ZnO, TiO2, entre autres.The extraction layer 6 is formed of a dielectric material 6.2 and transparent to the emission wavelength of the active layer 13 which forms a binding matrix in which nanometric particles 6.1 are located. The transparent dielectric material 6.2 has an incident radiation transmission coefficient at least equal to 50%, preferably at least equal to 75%, or even 90%, or even more. It can be chosen from silicone, polysiloxane, PDMS, PMMA, PVA, mineral layers based on sol-gel type oxide such as SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , ZnO, TiO 2 , between others.

Les particules nanométriques 6.1 présentent un diamètre moyen de l'ordre de quelques nanomètres à quelques centaines de nanomètres, par exemple sont comprises entre 0.2nm et 500nm, et de préférence entre 2nm et 150nm. Elles peuvent notamment être des particules métalliques et/ou des boîtes quantiques. Les particules sont des éléments distincts les uns des autres, dont la forme peut être quelconque, par exemple sphérique, anguleuse, aplatie ou allongée, ou toute autre forme. La taille des particules est ici la plus petite dimension des particules et le diamètre moyen est la moyenne arithmétique de la taille des particules.The nanometric particles 6.1 have an average diameter of the order of a few nanometers to a few hundred nanometers, for example are between 0.2 nm and 500 nm, and preferably between 2 nm and 150 nm. They can in particular be metallic particles and/or quantum dots. The particles are elements distinct from one another, the shape of which may be any, for example spherical, angular, flattened or elongated, or any other shape. The particle size here is the smallest dimension of the particles and the mean diameter is the arithmetic mean of the particle size.

Dans le cas où les particules nanométriques 6.1 sont réalisées en un matériau métallique, celui-ci peut être choisi parmi Ag, Cu, Au, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Rh, In, Ru, Fe, CuNi, entre autres, et parmi les composés formés d'un mélange d'au moins deux ou plus de ces matériaux. La densité surfacique de particules métalliques est déterminée par la théorie de Mie de manière à optimiser l'efficacité d'absorption d'une particule métallique en fonction de l'indice de réfraction du milieu diélectrique. A titre d'exemple, pour un milieu diélectrique d'indice de réfraction de 1.5, un diamètre moyen de 55nm pour des particules nanométriques d'argent permet d'optimiser l'efficacité d'absorption à 460nm. La section efficace d'absorption de ces particules est alors de 0.5×10-14m2 et la densité surfacique peut alors être de l'ordre de 2×1014 m-2.In the case where the nanometric particles 6.1 are made of a metallic material, this can be chosen from among Ag, Cu, Au, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Rh, In, Ru, Fe, CuNi, among others, and among the compounds formed from a mixture of at least two or more of these materials. The surface density of metal particles is determined by Mie theory so as to optimize the absorption efficiency of a metal particle as a function of the refractive index of the dielectric medium. By way of example, for a dielectric medium with a refractive index of 1.5, an average diameter of 55 nm for nanometric particles of silver makes it possible to optimize the absorption efficiency at 460 nm. The effective absorption section of these particles is then 0.5×10 -14 m 2 and the surface density can then be of the order of 2×10 14 m -2 .

Dans le cas où les particules nanométriques 6.1 sont des boîtes quantiques, celles-ci peuvent être réalisées sous la forme de nanocristaux semiconducteurs, dont la taille moyenne peut être comprise entre 0.2nm et 500nm, par exemple entre 1nm et 100nm, et notamment entre 2nm et 30nm. Le matériau semiconducteur des nanocristaux peut être notamment choisi parmi le séléniure de cadmium (CdSe), le phosphore d'indium (InP), le sulfure de cadmium (CdS), le sulfure de zinc (ZnS), l'oxyde de cadmium (CdO), le séléniure de zinc et de cadmium (CdZnSe), ou parmi d'autres matériaux semiconducteurs pouvant convenir. La densité surfacique dépend ici notamment du taux de conversion de lumière désiré, c'est-à-dire du rapport entre l'intensité du rayonnement de photoluminescence émis par les boîtes quantiques 6.1 sur l'intensité du rayonnement d'électroluminescence émis par la couche active 13.In the case where the nanometric particles 6.1 are quantum dots, these can be produced in the form of semiconductor nanocrystals, the average size of which can be between 0.2 nm and 500 nm, for example between 1 nm and 100 nm, and in particular between 2 nm and 30nm. The semiconductor material of the nanocrystals can be chosen in particular from cadmium selenide (CdSe), indium phosphorus (InP), cadmium sulphide (CdS), zinc sulphide (ZnS), cadmium oxide (CdO ), zinc cadmium selenide (CdZnSe), or among other suitable semiconductor materials. The surface density depends here in particular on the desired light conversion rate, that is to say on the ratio between the intensity of the photoluminescence radiation emitted by the quantum boxes 6.1 on the intensity of the electroluminescence radiation emitted by the layer active 13.

Les particules nanométriques 6.1 peuvent également être des boîtes quantiques à effet plasmon, réalisées par exemple d'un cœur métallique entouré d'une gaine diélectrique, elle-même entourée d'une couche formant une boîte quantique. Le cœur métallique, par exemple en argent, forme une antenne absorbante pour le couplage dipôle-dipôle, et couple cette énergie absorbée au matériau formant la boîte quantique, qui va ensuite émettre un rayonnement de photoluminescence.The nanometric particles 6.1 can also be plasmon effect quantum boxes, made for example of a metal core surrounded by a dielectric sheath, itself surrounded by a layer forming a quantum box. The metallic core, for example silver, forms an absorbing antenna for the dipole-dipole coupling, and couples this absorbed energy to the material forming the quantum box, which will then emit photoluminescence radiation.

Les particules nanométriques 6.1 sont disposées dans la couche d'extraction 6 de préférence à proximité ou au niveau de l'interface avec la première couche 11, de manière à permettre le couplage non radiatif en champ proche entre les dipôles optiques µ1 associés à la couche active 13 et les dipôles optiques µ2 associés aux particules nanométriques 6.1. Elles sont de préférence disposées suivant un plan parallèle au plan XY. De préférence, la distance suivant l'axe Z séparant les particules nanométriques 6.1 de la couche active 13 est inférieure ou égale à 50nm. Cette distance peut être définie entre le plan dans lequel s'étendent majoritairement les particules nanométriques 6.1 et un plan passant par la moitié de l'épaisseur de la couche active 13.The nanometric particles 6.1 are arranged in the extraction layer 6 preferably close to or at the level of the interface with the first layer 11, so as to allow non-radiative coupling in the near field between the optical dipoles µ 1 associated with the active layer 13 and the optical dipoles µ 2 associated with the nanometric particles 6.1. They are preferably arranged along a plane parallel to the XY plane. Preferably, the distance along the Z axis separating the nanometric particles 6.1 from the active layer 13 is less than or equal to 50 nm. This distance can be defined between the plane in which the nanometric particles 6.1 mainly extend and a plane passing through half the thickness of the active layer 13.

La couche active 13 étant le lieu principal de la recombinaison radiative des paires électron-trou, les dipôles optiques µ1 dits émetteurs (appelés également donneurs µ1(D) dans le cadre du couplage dipôle-dipôle) sont situés dans la couche active 13, et sont donc espacés d'une distance h1 vis-à-vis de la couche d'extraction 6. On considère qu'ils sont situés dans un plan parallèle au plan XY et espacé de la distance h1 de la couche d'extraction 6. On note h1=0 l'interface entre la couche d'extraction 6 et la première couche 11.The active layer 13 being the main site of the radiative recombination of the electron-hole pairs, the optical dipoles µ 1 called emitters (also called donors µ 1(D) in the context of the dipole-dipole coupling) are located in the active layer 13 , and are therefore spaced apart by a distance h 1 with respect to the extraction layer 6. It is considered that they are located in a plane parallel to the XY plane and spaced apart by the distance h 1 from the layer of extraction 6. We note h 1 =0 the interface between the extraction layer 6 and the first layer 11.

La distance h1 séparant les dipôles émetteurs µ1 vis-à-vis la couche d'extraction 6 est définie pour la suite de la description comme étant la distance suivant l'axe Z entre, d'une part, un plan passant par la moitié de l'épaisseur de la couche active 13, et d'autre part, la couche d'extraction 6. Cependant, en variante, et notamment lorsque la couche active 13 comporte plusieurs couches émissives 13.1 de puits quantique, on peut définir la distance h1 comme étant la distance suivant l'axe Z entre, d'une part, un plan passant par la moitié de l'épaisseur de la couche 13.1 de puits quantique située au plus près de couche 12 en GaN-P, et d'autre part la couche d'extraction 6. Une étude préalable peut être effectuée pour déterminée où se situe précisément dans la couche active 13 l'essentiel des recombinaisons radiatives des paires électron-trou. Dans cet exemple, la distance h1 est donc égale à la somme de l'épaisseur de la première couche 11, de l'épaisseur de la couche barrière 13.2, et de la moitié de l'épaisseur de la couche émissive 13.1.The distance h 1 separating the emitter dipoles µ 1 vis-à-vis the extraction layer 6 is defined for the rest of the description as being the distance along the Z axis between, on the one hand, a plane passing through the half the thickness of the active layer 13, and on the other hand, the extraction layer 6. However, as a variant, and in particular when the active layer 13 comprises several emissive layers 13.1 of quantum wells, it is possible to define the distance h 1 as being the distance along the Z axis between, on the one hand, a plane passing through half the thickness of the quantum well layer 13.1 located closest to the GaN-P layer 12, and on the other hand the extraction layer 6. A preliminary study can be carried out to determine where precisely in the active layer 13 is located most of the radiative recombinations of the electron-hole pairs. In this example, the distance h 1 is therefore equal to the sum of the thickness of the first layer 11, of the thickness of the barrier layer 13.2, and of half the thickness of the emissive layer 13.1.

L'orientation d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 correspond à l'angle θ1 entre son moment dipolaire et l'axe Z orthogonal au plan XY de la couche active 13. Aussi, un angle θ1 égal à 0° correspond à une orientation verticale des dipôles émetteurs µ1 vis-à-vis du plan de la couche active 13 et ici en direction de la couche d'extraction 6, et un angle θ1 égal à 90° correspond à une orientation horizontale.The orientation of an emitter dipole µ 1 corresponds to the angle θ 1 between its dipole moment and the Z axis orthogonal to the XY plane of the active layer 13. Also, an angle θ 1 equal to 0° corresponds to an orientation vertical of the emitter dipoles µ 1 with respect to the plane of the active layer 13 and here in the direction of the extraction layer 6, and an angle θ 1 equal to 90° corresponds to a horizontal orientation.

On considère ici que les dipôles émetteurs µ1 sont situés dans un premier milieu optiquement linéaire homogène et isotrope de constante diélectrique ε1 (permittivité relative) et d'indice de réfraction n1, ce premier milieu étant formé de la couche active 13 et de la première couche 11. Par optiquement homogène, on entend que la constante diélectrique ε1 est sensiblement constante en tout point de ce premier milieu, à 10% près, voire à 5% près, voire moins.It is considered here that the emitter dipoles µ 1 are located in a first homogeneous and isotropic optically linear medium of dielectric constant ε 1 (relative permittivity) and refractive index n 1 , this first medium being formed of the active layer 13 and of the first layer 11. By optically homogeneous, it is meant that the dielectric constant ε 1 is substantially constant at any point of this first medium, to within 10%, or even within 5%, or even less.

Le matériau diélectrique 6.2 de la couche d'extraction 6 forme un deuxième milieu que l'on considère, en première approximation comme étant optiquement linéaire homogène et isotrope, de constante diélectrique ε2 et d'indice de réfraction n2. Par extension, on considère que la couche d'extraction 6 forme ce même deuxième milieu homogène. L'indice de réfraction peut être l'indice optique ayant une partie réelle (indice de réfraction proprement dit) et une partie imaginaire non nulle (indice d'extinction).The dielectric material 6.2 of the extraction layer 6 forms a second medium which is considered, as a first approximation, to be optically linear homogeneous and isotropic, with dielectric constant ε 2 and refractive index n 2 . By extension, it is considered that the extraction layer 6 forms this same second homogeneous medium. The refractive index can be the optical index having a real part (refractive index proper) and a non-zero imaginary part (extinction index).

Le procédé de fabrication d'une diode électroluminescente 1 comporte une phase de détermination d'une distance notée h1s entre les dipôles émetteurs µ1 associés aux recombinaisons radiatives dans la couche active 13 et la couche d'extraction 6, de sorte que les dipôles émetteurs µ1 présentent une orientation verticale (θ1=0°). L'épaisseur de la première couche 11 peut ensuite être déterminée en tenant compte de la valeur h1s.The method for manufacturing a light-emitting diode 1 comprises a phase of determining a distance denoted h 1s between the emitter dipoles µ 1 associated with the radiative recombinations in the active layer 13 and the extraction layer 6, so that the dipoles emitters μ 1 have a vertical orientation (θ 1 =0°). The thickness of the first layer 11 can then be determined by taking into account the value h 1s .

Pour cela, une fonction g est prédéterminée qui exprime une évolution, en fonction de la distance h1, d'un paramètre représentatif d'une durée de vie d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 présentant l'une ou l'autre desdites orientations, en fonction des propriétés optiques n1, n2 des premier et deuxième milieux homogènes. Ainsi, la fonction g est notée gh ou gv lorsqu'elle est relative à une orientation horizontale (θ1=90°) ou verticale (θ1=0°).For this, a function g is predetermined which expresses an evolution, as a function of the distance h 1 , of a parameter representative of a lifetime of an emitter dipole µ 1 exhibiting one or the other of said orientations, as a function of the optical properties n 1 , n 2 of the first and second homogeneous media. Thus, the function g is denoted g h or g v when it relates to a horizontal (θ 1 =90°) or vertical (θ 1 =0°) orientation.

La durée de vie τ est définie comme étant celle d'un dipôle émetteur situé dans un milieu optiquement linéaire, homogène et isotrope, de constante diélectrique ε. Elle correspond à la durée de vie de l'émission spontanée d'un système à deux niveaux, dont on considère en première approximation qu'elle est identique à la durée de vie des dipôles émetteurs dans le cadre de l'électroluminescence. On note τn la durée de vie normalisée égale au rapport de la durée de vie τ/τ0, où la durée de vie τ0 est définie comme étant celle d'un dipôle émetteur situé dans le même milieu mais de dimensions infinies, donc à une distance infinie du deuxième milieu homogène.The lifetime τ is defined as being that of an emitter dipole situated in an optically linear, homogeneous and isotropic medium, of dielectric constant ε. It corresponds to the lifetime of the spontaneous emission of a two-level system, which, as a first approximation, is considered to be identical to the lifetime of emitter dipoles in the context of electroluminescence. We note τ n the normalized lifetime equal to the ratio of the lifetime τ/τ 0 , where the lifetime τ 0 is defined as being that of an emitter dipole located in the same medium but of infinite dimensions, therefore at an infinite distance from the second homogeneous medium.

Or, la durée de vie normalisée τn est égale à l'inverse de la puissance rayonnée normalisée P/Po du dipôle émetteur, autrement dit : τn = τ/τ0 = P0/P. Ici, P est le taux de dissipation d'énergie du dipôle émetteur, autrement dit la puissance optique rayonnée par le dipôle émetteur dans le premier milieu homogène et situé à une distance h du deuxième milieu homogène, et Po est la puissance optique rayonnée par le même dipôle émetteur dans le premier milieu homogène de dimensions infinies (loin du deuxième milieu homogène, par exemple à plus 500nm du deuxième milieu homogène).However, the normalized lifetime τ n is equal to the inverse of the normalized radiated power P/Po of the transmitter dipole, in other words: τ n =τ/τ 0 =P 0 /P. Here, P is the energy dissipation rate of the emitter dipole, in other words the optical power radiated by the emitter dipole in the first homogeneous medium and located at a distance h from the second homogeneous medium, and Po is the optical power radiated by the same emitter dipole in the first homogeneous medium of infinite dimensions (far from the second homogeneous medium, for example at more than 500 nm from the second homogeneous medium).

L'ouvrage de Novotny & Hecht intitulé Principles of Nano-Optics, Cambridge University Press, 2006, indique en page 344 (équation n°10.26) une expression de la puissance optique rayonnée normalisée P/Po d'un dipôle émetteur situé dans un premier milieu homogène à une distance h d'un substrat formé d'un deuxième milieu homogène (couche mince) et d'un troisième milieu homogène.The work of Novotny & Hecht entitled Principles of Nano-Optics, Cambridge University Press, 2006, indicates on page 344 (equation n°10.26) an expression of the normalized radiated optical power P/Po of an emitter dipole located in a first homogeneous medium at a distance h from a substrate formed of a second homogeneous medium (thin layer) and of a third homogeneous medium.

Cette équation peut être adaptée à notre configuration d'une diode électroluminescente 1 où le dipôle émetteur de la couche active 13 est situé dans le premier milieu homogène formé de la couche active 13 et de la première couche 11, et est disposé à une distance h du deuxième milieu homogène formé de la couche d'extraction 6. Ainsi, la puissance optique rayonnée normalisée par un tel dipôle émetteur peut s'écrire : P P 0 = 1 + 3 4 μ x 2 + μ y 2 μ 2 0 Re s s z r s s z 2 r p e 2 ik 1 hs z ds + 3 2 μ z 2 μ 2 0 Re s 3 s z r p e 2 ik 1 hs z ds

Figure imgb0001
où :

  • µ est la norme du moment dipolaire, et nx,y,z est la coordonnée cartésienne du moment dipolaire suivant l'axe x, y ou z ;
  • s est la variable d'intégration définie par s = kρ/k1, avec :
    • ∘ kρ la projection du vecteur d'onde k dans le plan XY, de sorte que kρ = kx/cosφ et kρ = ky/sinφ ; et k1 est la norme du vecteur d'onde k dans le milieu 1 ;
    • ∘ sz égal à (1-s2)1/2 ;
  • rs et rp sont les coefficients de réflexion du rayonnement optique émis par le dipôle émetteur pour les polarisations s et p à l'interface entre la première couche 11 et la couche d'extraction 6. Ces coefficients dépendent de la variable d'intégration s et leurs expressions générales sont données par les équations 10.20 et 10.21 en p.342 de Novotny & Hecht 2006.
This equation can be adapted to our configuration of a light-emitting diode 1 where the emitter dipole of the active layer 13 is located in the first homogeneous medium formed by the active layer 13 and the first layer 11, and is placed at a distance h of the second homogeneous medium formed by the extraction layer 6. Thus, the radiated optical power normalized by such an emitter dipole can be written: P P 0 = 1 + 3 4 μ x 2 + μ there 2 μ 2 0 D s s z r s s z 2 r p e 2 ik 1 hs z ds + 3 2 μ z 2 μ 2 0 D s 3 s z r p e 2 ik 1 hs z ds
Figure imgb0001
where :
  • µ is the norm of the dipole moment, and n x,y,z is the Cartesian coordinate of the dipole moment along the x, y or z axis;
  • s is the integration variable defined by s = k ρ /k 1 , with:
    • ∘ k ρ the projection of the wave vector k in the XY plane, so that k ρ = k x /cosφ and k ρ = k y /sinφ; and k 1 is the norm of the wave vector k in medium 1;
    • ∘ s z equal to (1-s 2 ) 1/2 ;
  • r s and r p are the reflection coefficients of the optical radiation emitted by the transmitter dipole for the s and p polarizations at the interface between the first layer 11 and the extraction layer 6. These coefficients depend on the integration variable s and their general expressions are given by equations 10.20 and 10.21 on p.342 of Novotny & Hecht 2006.

Cependant, dans la configuration selon l'invention, le coefficient de réflexion rp à l'interface avec la couche d'extraction 6 pour le rayonnement lumineux de polarisation p peut s'écrire, en fonction de la variable d'intégration s, de la manière suivante : r p = tan tan 1 s s z sin 1 n 1 n 2 sin tan 1 s s z tan tan 1 s s z + sin 1 n 1 n 2 sin tan 1 s s z

Figure imgb0002
However, in the configuration according to the invention, the reflection coefficient r p at the interface with the extraction layer 6 for the light radiation of polarization p can be written, as a function of the integration variable s, of the following way: r p = tan tan 1 s s z sin 1 not 1 not 2 sin tan 1 s s z tan tan 1 s s z + sin 1 not 1 not 2 sin tan 1 s s z
Figure imgb0002

Et le coefficient de réflexion rs à l'interface avec la couche d'extraction 6 pour le rayonnement lumineux de polarisation s peut s'écrire, en fonction de la variable d'intégration s, de la manière suivante : r s = sin tan 1 s s z sin 1 n 1 n 2 sin tan 1 s s z sin tan 1 s s z + sin 1 n 1 n 2 sin tan 1 s s z

Figure imgb0003
And the reflection coefficient r s at the interface with the extraction layer 6 for the light radiation of polarization s can be written, as a function of the integration variable s, as follows: r s = sin tan 1 s s z sin 1 not 1 not 2 sin tan 1 s s z sin tan 1 s s z + sin 1 not 1 not 2 sin tan 1 s s z
Figure imgb0003

Par ailleurs, le terme µz 22 correspond à cosθ, et le terme (µx 2 + µy 2) / µ2 est égal à sinθ. Le vecteur d'onde k présente, dans le premier milieu homogène, une norme notée k1 égale à 2π/(n1×λ). Comme mentionné précédemment, n1 et n2 sont les indices de réfraction des premier et deuxième milieux homogènes, lesquels sont déduits des constantes diélectriques ε1, ε2.Moreover, the term µ z 22 corresponds to cosθ, and the term (µ x 2 + µ y 2 )/µ 2 is equal to sinθ. The wave vector k has, in the first homogeneous medium, a norm denoted k 1 equal to 2π/(n 1 ×λ). As mentioned previously, n 1 and n 2 are the refractive indices of the first and second homogeneous media, which are deduced from the dielectric constants ε 1 , ε 2 .

Ainsi, la puissance rayonnée P par le dipôle émetteur est formée de trois termes principaux, à savoir la puissance rayonnée intrinsèque P0 (loin de tout phénomène lié à l'environnement du premier milieu homogène), un terme correspondant à la puissance rayonnée associée au moment dipolaire µx et µy dans le plan XY et un terme correspondant à la puissance rayonnée associée au moment dipolaire µz suivant l'axe Z.Thus, the power P radiated by the emitter dipole is formed of three main terms, namely the intrinsic radiated power P 0 (far from any phenomenon linked to the environment of the first homogeneous medium), a term corresponding to the power radiated power associated with the dipole moment µ x and µ y in the XY plane and a term corresponding to the radiated power associated with the dipole moment µ z along the Z axis.

Cette équation est obtenue à partir des équations de Maxwell, en utilisant les fonctions dyadiques de Green pour décrire un unique dipôle ponctuel oscillant, et la méthode de spectre angulaire du champ du dipôle vient étendre les fonctions de Green en ondes planes et évanescentes respectivement dans un système cylindrique. Le dipôle émetteur interagit donc avec ses propres ondes planes et évanescentes réfléchies.This equation is obtained from Maxwell's equations, using Green's dyadic functions to describe a single oscillating point dipole, and the dipole field angular spectrum method extends Green's plane wave and evanescent functions respectively in a cylindrical system. The transmitter dipole therefore interacts with its own reflected plane and evanescent waves.

Ainsi, on obtient une fonction g exprimant l'évolution d'un paramètre représentatif de la durée de vie d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation θ1 prédéfinie en fonction de la distance h1 à la couche d'extraction 6, compte tenu des propriétés optiques n1 du premier milieu homogène (formé des première couche 11 et couche active 13) et de celles n2 du deuxième milieu homogène (couche d'extraction 6). Le paramètre représentatif est de préférence la durée de vie normalisée τn=τ/τ0.Thus, a function g is obtained expressing the evolution of a parameter representative of the lifetime of an emitter dipole µ 1 of predefined orientation θ 1 as a function of the distance h 1 from the extraction layer 6, counts given the optical properties n 1 of the first homogeneous medium (formed of the first layer 11 and active layer 13) and those n 2 of the second homogeneous medium (extraction layer 6). The representative parameter is preferably the normalized lifetime τ n =τ/τ 0 .

La figure 2B illustre un exemple d'évolutions, en fonction de la distance h1, de la durée de vie normalisée τn1,v d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation verticale et celle τn1,h d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation horizontale, dans le cas où le premier milieu homogène est réalisé à base de GaN (première couche 11 et couche active 13), et le deuxième milieu homogène est réalisé en le matériau diélectrique 6.2 (couche d'extraction 6), pour une longueur d'onde d'émission égale à 460nm. Ces évolutions sont déterminées à partir de la fonction g décrite précédemment, et sont données sur une gamme de distance Δh1ref prédéfinie allant ici de 0nm à 500nm.The figure 2B illustrates an example of changes, as a function of the distance h 1 , of the normalized lifetime τ n1,v of an emitter dipole µ 1 of vertical orientation and that τ n1,h of an emitter dipole µ 1 d horizontal orientation, in the case where the first homogeneous medium is made from GaN (first layer 11 and active layer 13), and the second homogeneous medium is made of the dielectric material 6.2 (extraction layer 6), for a emission wavelength equal to 460nm. These evolutions are determined from the function g described previously, and are given over a range of predefined distance Δh 1ref ranging here from 0 nm to 500 nm.

Plus précisément, la diode électroluminescente 1 comporte une couche émissive 13.1 en InGaN (pas de couche barrière en GaN intrinsèque) et une première couche 11 en GaN dopé N qui forment ensemble le premier milieu homogène. L'indice de réfraction n1 est égal à 2.4764 environ pour une longueur d'onde d'émission de λ=460nm. La première couche 11 est au contact de la couche d'extraction 6 réalisée en un matériau diélectrique qui forme le deuxième milieu homogène et présente un indice de réfraction n2 égal ici à 1.5.More specifically, the light-emitting diode 1 comprises an emissive layer 13.1 of InGaN (no intrinsic GaN barrier layer) and a first layer 11 of N-doped GaN which together form the first homogeneous medium. The refractive index n 1 is equal to approximately 2.4764 for an emission wavelength of λ=460 nm. The first layer 11 is in contact with the extraction layer 6 made of a dielectric material which forms the second homogeneous medium and has a refractive index n 2 here equal to 1.5.

Il apparaît que la durée de vie normalisée τn1,h des dipôles émetteurs µ1 à orientation horizontale reste sensiblement constante et égale à 1.0, quelle que soit la valeur de la distance h1 sur la gamme Δh1ref. En revanche, la durée de vie normalisée τn1,v des dipôles émetteurs µ1 à orientation verticale diminue à mesure que la distance h1 augmente, passant ici de 4.5 environ pour h1=0nm à 1.0 autour de 500nm. Ainsi, sur toute la gamme Δh1ref, l'orientation verticale des dipôles émetteurs µ1 restent prépondérante sur l'orientation horizontale. On peut donc dimensionner l'épaisseur de la première couche 11 de sorte que la distance h1s retenue entre les dipôles émetteurs de la couche active 13 à la couche d'extraction 6 soit comprise entre 1nm et 500nm environ.It appears that the normalized lifetime τ n1,h of emitter dipoles µ 1 with horizontal orientation remains substantially constant and equal to 1.0, whatever the value of the distance h 1 over the range Δh 1ref . On the other hand, the normalized lifetime τ n1,v of emitter dipoles µ 1 with vertical orientation decreases as the distance h 1 increases, passing here from approximately 4.5 for h 1 =0 nm to 1.0 around 500 nm. Thus, over the entire range Δh 1ref , the vertical orientation of the emitter dipoles µ 1 remains preponderant on horizontal orientation. It is therefore possible to dimension the thickness of the first layer 11 so that the distance h 1s retained between the emitter dipoles of the active layer 13 to the extraction layer 6 is between 1 nm and 500 nm approximately.

Cependant, il est avantageux que la distance h1s soit déterminée de sorte qu'un écart entre la durée de vie normalisée τn1,v des dipôles émetteurs µ1 d'orientation verticale et la durée de vie normalisée τn1,h des dipôles émetteurs µ1 d'orientation horizontale soit important en valeur absolue. Aussi, on peut définir un paramètre dit d'écart S1, appelé sélectivité, représentatif d'un écart entre la durée de vie normalisée τn1,v d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 ayant l'orientation verticale et la durée de vie normalisée τn1,h d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 ayant l'orientation horizontale. Cette sélectivité S1 peut être définie comme étant la différence ou le rapport, en valeur absolue ou non, entre la durée de vie normalisée τn1,v d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 présentant l'orientation verticale et la durée de vie normalisée τn1,h d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 présentant l'orientation horizontale. Autrement dit, S1 = = τn1,v - τn1,h ou en variante S1 = τn1,v / τn1,h. Par la suite, on utilise S1 = = τn1,v - τn1,h.However, it is advantageous for the distance h 1s to be determined so that a difference between the normalized lifetime τ n1,v of the emitter dipoles µ 1 of vertical orientation and the normalized lifetime τ n1,h of the emitter dipoles µ 1 of horizontal orientation is significant in absolute value. Also, one can define a so-called difference parameter S 1 , called selectivity, representative of a difference between the normalized lifetime τ n1,v of an emitter dipole µ 1 having the vertical orientation and the normalized lifetime τ n1,h of an emitter dipole µ 1 having the horizontal orientation. This selectivity S 1 can be defined as being the difference or the ratio, in absolute value or not, between the normalized lifetime τ n1,v of an emitter dipole µ 1 having the vertical orientation and the normalized lifetime τ n1,h of an emitter dipole µ 1 presenting the horizontal orientation. In other words, S 1 = = τ n1,v - τ n1,h or alternatively S 1 = τ n1,v / τ n1,h . Subsequently, we use S 1 = = τ n1,v - τ n1,h .

Il apparaît que le paramètre S1 présente une valeur supérieure ou égale à 2.0 pour h1 inférieure ou égale à 100nm, et une valeur supérieure ou égale à 2.5 pour h1 inférieure ou égale à 50nm environ. On peut donc dimensionner l'épaisseur de la première couche 11 de sorte que la distance h1s entre les dipôles émetteurs de la couche active 13 à la couche d'extraction 6 soit comprise entre 1nm et 50nm environ. De préférence, l'épaisseur de la première couche 11 pourra être choisie entre 1nm et 100nm, et de préférence entre 5nm et 10nm environ de manière à maximiser l'effet de champ proche. Par « champ proche », on entend que la distance entre les dipôles accepteurs et donneurs est inférieure ou égale à λ/5, voire inférieure ou égale à λ/10, où λ est la longueur d'onde d'émission du rayonnement émis par la couche active, moyennant l'indice de réfraction du milieu, dans laquelle le champ électrique rayonné par le dipôle décroît en 1/r3.It appears that the parameter S 1 has a value greater than or equal to 2.0 for h 1 less than or equal to 100 nm, and a value greater than or equal to 2.5 for h 1 less than or equal to approximately 50 nm. It is therefore possible to dimension the thickness of the first layer 11 so that the distance h 1s between the emitter dipoles of the active layer 13 to the extraction layer 6 is between 1 nm and 50 nm approximately. Preferably, the thickness of the first layer 11 can be chosen between 1 nm and 100 nm, and preferably between 5 nm and 10 nm approximately so as to maximize the near field effect. By "near field", it is meant that the distance between the acceptor and donor dipoles is less than or equal to λ/5, or even less than or equal to λ/10, where λ is the emission wavelength of the radiation emitted by the active layer, by means of the refractive index of the medium, in which the electric field radiated by the dipole decreases in 1/r 3 .

Aussi, il est possible de déterminer une distance h1s pour laquelle la durée de vie normalisée τn1,v associée à l'orientation verticale des dipôles émetteurs µ1 est supérieure à la durée de vie normalisée τn1,h associée à l'orientation horizontale. Dans ce cas, les dipôles émetteurs µ1 présentant l'orientation verticale seront prépondérants sur ceux présentant l'orientation horizontale. La diode électroluminescente 1 peut alors être dimensionnée, en particulier l'épaisseur de la première couche 11, de sorte que les dipôles émetteurs µ1 soient situés à la distance hs1 de la couche d'extraction 6.Also, it is possible to determine a distance h 1s for which the normalized lifetime τ n1,v associated with the vertical orientation of the emitter dipoles µ 1 is greater than the normalized lifetime τ n1,h associated with the orientation horizontal. In this case, the emitter dipoles μ 1 exhibiting the vertical orientation will predominate over those exhibiting the horizontal orientation. The light-emitting diode 1 can then be dimensioned, in particular the thickness of the first layer 11, so that the emitter dipoles µ 1 are located at the distance h s1 from the extraction layer 6.

Ainsi, un couplage non radiatif en champ proche de type dipôle-dipôle est présent entre les dipôles émetteurs notés ici µ1(D) (pour Donneurs) associés aux recombinaisons radiatives dans la couche active 13 et les dipôles notés ici µ2(A) (pour Accepteurs) associés aux particules nanométriques 6.1. Ces dipôles µ1(D) et µ2(A) sont les vecteurs des moments dipolaires des dipôles optiques. L'intensité de ce couplage non radiatif est caractérisée par le facteur angulaire de couplage K2.Thus, a non-radiative coupling in the near field of the dipole-dipole type is present between the emitting dipoles denoted here µ 1(D) (for Donors) associated with the radiative recombinations in the active layer 13 and the dipoles denoted here µ 2(A) (for Acceptors) associated to nanometric particles 6.1. These dipoles µ 1(D) and µ 2(A) are the vectors of the dipole moments of the optical dipoles. The intensity of this non-radiative coupling is characterized by the angular coupling factor K 2 .

De manière connue, le facteur angulaire de couplage K2 entre les dipôles émetteurs µ1(D) et µ2(A) est défini par la relation : K 2 = n A n D 3 n A n D n r n A 2

Figure imgb0004
In a known manner, the angular coupling factor K 2 between the transmitter dipoles µ 1(D) and µ 2(A) is defined by the relationship: K 2 = not HAS not D 3 not HAS not D not r not HAS 2
Figure imgb0004

Cette expression est notamment décrite dans l'ouvrage de Novotny & Hecht 2006 en page 290 (équation 8.169). Le facteur K2 dépend de l'orientation des vecteurs unitaires n A et nD associés aux dipôles accepteurs µ2(A) et donneurs µ1(D) , et du vecteur unitaire nr reliant les dipôles accepteurs µ2(A) et donneurs µ1(D) considérés.This expression is notably described in the work of Novotny & Hecht 2006 on page 290 (equation 8.169). The factor K 2 depends on the orientation of the unit vectors n A and n D associated with the acceptor dipoles µ 2(A) and donors µ 1(D) , and on the unit vector n r connecting the acceptor dipoles µ 2(A) and donors µ 1(D) considered.

L'interaction dipôle-dipôle modifie les propriétés d'absorption des dipôles accepteurs µ2(A) . Il y a un transfert d'énergie non-radiatif entre les dipôles donneurs µ1(D) et les dipôles accepteurs µ2(A) , appelé couplage FRET (Förster resonance energy transfer, en anglais), qui se traduit par une augmentation du rendement lumineux de la diode électroluminescente 1.The dipole-dipole interaction modifies the absorption properties of the µ 2(A) acceptor dipoles. There is a non-radiative energy transfer between the donor dipoles µ 1(D) and the acceptor dipoles µ 2(A) , called FRET ( Förster resonance energy transfer ) coupling, which results in an increase in the light output of light emitting diode 1.

Il apparaît que le facteur angulaire de couplage K2 est maximal lorsque les dipôles donneurs µ1(D) et accepteurs µ2(A) sont colinéaires, auquel cas, le facteur K2 est égal à 4. Ainsi, dimensionner la première couche 11 pour obtenir une orientation verticale prépondérante des dipôles donneurs µ1(D) permet de rendre les dipôles accepteurs µ2(A) colinéaires avec les dipôles donneurs µ1(D) , et ainsi d'améliorer encore le rendement lumineux de la diode électroluminescente 1. En effet, dans le cadre du couplage non radiatif dipôle-dipôle, les dipôles accepteurs µ2(A) s'orientent suivant l'orientation des dipôles donneurs µ1(D) .It appears that the angular coupling factor K 2 is maximum when the donor dipoles µ 1(D) and acceptors µ 2(A) are collinear, in which case the factor K 2 is equal to 4. Thus, dimensioning the first layer 11 to obtain a preponderant vertical orientation of the donor dipoles µ 1 (D) makes it possible to make the acceptor dipoles µ 2 (A) collinear with the donor dipoles µ 1 (D) , and thus to further improve the luminous efficiency of the light-emitting diode 1 Indeed, within the framework of the non-radiative dipole-dipole coupling, the acceptor dipoles µ 2 (A) are oriented according to the orientation of the donor dipoles µ 1 (D) .

Dans le cas où la couche d'extraction 6 est formée de particules métalliques 6.1, le rendement lumineux de la diode électroluminescente 1 est augmenté de plus par une émission lumineuse supplémentaire par effet plasmonique. Les particules métalliques 6.1 peuvent ainsi émettre un rayonnement lumineux à une longueur d'onde de résonance sensiblement identique à la longueur d'onde d'électroluminescence λe de la diode électroluminescente 1. Pour cela, des modes plasmoniques des particules métalliques 6.1 sont excités, dont un mode résonant peut conduire à l'émission du rayonnement lumineux supplémentaire. Ici, le mode résonant plasmonique des particules métalliques 6.1 correspond à des dipôles accepteurs µ2(A) situés en champ proche des dipôles donneurs µ1(D) . Par ailleurs, dans le cas où les particules nanométriques 6.1 sont des boîtes quantiques, la couche d'extraction 6 assure une fonction supplémentaire de conversion de couleur, en convertissant une partie du rayonnement lumineux émis par la couche active 13 en un rayonnement lumineux de plus grande longueur d'onde.In the case where the extraction layer 6 is formed of metal particles 6.1, the luminous efficiency of the light-emitting diode 1 is further increased by an additional light emission by plasmonic effect. The metal particles 6.1 can thus emit light radiation at a resonance wavelength substantially identical to the electroluminescence wavelength λ e of the light-emitting diode 1. For this, plasmon modes of the metal particles 6.1 are excited, including a resonant mode can lead to the emission of additional light radiation. Here, the plasmonic resonant mode of the metal particles 6.1 corresponds to acceptor dipoles µ 2(A) located in the near field of the donor dipoles µ 1(D) . Moreover, in the case where the nanometric particles 6.1 are quantum dots, the extraction layer 6 performs an additional function of converting color, by converting part of the light radiation emitted by the active layer 13 into light radiation of longer wavelength.

Par ailleurs, il peut être avantageux de dimensionner l'épaisseur de la couche d'extraction 6 de sorte que les dipôles optiques µ2 associés aux particules nanométriques 6.1 soient situés à une distance h2s déterminée vis-à-vis de l'interface entre sa face supérieure 6a et le milieu environnant (par ex., de l'air). Il peut en effet être avantageux de rendre prépondérante l'orientation verticale de ces dipôles optiques µ2 de manière par exemple à optimiser davantage le couplage non radiatif en champ proche de type dipôle-dipôle avec les dipôles optiques µ1 de la couche active 13. Il peut au contraire être avantageux de rendre prépondérante l'orientation horizontale de ces dipôles optiques µ2 lorsque les particules nanométriques 6.1 forment des boîtes quantiques, de manière à optimiser l'intensité du rayonnement lumineux de photoluminescence en champ lointain. Les particules nanométriques 6.1 sont toujours situées à la distance h1s prédéterminée vis-à-vis de la couche active 13.Furthermore, it may be advantageous to dimension the thickness of the extraction layer 6 so that the optical dipoles μ 2 associated with the nanometric particles 6.1 are located at a distance h 2s determined with respect to the interface between its upper face 6a and the surrounding medium (eg, air). It may in fact be advantageous to make the vertical orientation of these optical dipoles µ 2 preponderant so as, for example, to further optimize the non-radiative coupling in near field of the dipole-dipole type with the optical dipoles µ 1 of the active layer 13. On the contrary, it may be advantageous to make the horizontal orientation of these optical dipoles μ 2 preponderant when the nanometric particles 6.1 form quantum dots, so as to optimize the intensity of the photoluminescence light radiation in the far field. The nanometric particles 6.1 are always located at the predetermined distance h 1s vis-à-vis the active layer 13.

La figure 3A est une vue schématique et partielle de la diode électroluminescente illustrée sur la fig.2A. Les particules nanométriques 6.1 sont situées de préférence à l'interface avec la première couche 11, et sont disposées dans un plan XY, à la distance h1s des dipôles optiques µ1 . Les dipôles dipolaires µ2 forment un angle θ2 avec l'axe Z, de sorte qu'ils présentent une orientation verticale dans le cas où θ2=0°, et une orientation horizontale dans le cas où θ2=90°. Ils sont disposés à une distance h2 vis-à-vis de la face supérieure 6a. On considère ici que la couche d'extraction 6 forme un deuxième milieu optiquement linéaire, homogène et isotrope d'indice de réfraction n2, et que le milieu environnant forme un troisième milieu optiquement linéaire, homogène et isotrope d'indice de réfraction n3. La distance h2 est mesurée à partir de la face supérieure 6a suivant la direction -Z. Aussi, une valeur h2 nulle correspond à la face supérieure 6a. Dimensionner l'épaisseur de la couche d'extraction 6 revient à choisir l'épaisseur suivant l'axe Z du matériau diélectrique 6.2.The Figure 3A is a schematic and partial view of the light-emitting diode illustrated in the fig.2A . The nanometric particles 6.1 are preferably located at the interface with the first layer 11, and are arranged in an XY plane, at the distance h 1s from the optical dipoles µ 1 . The dipole dipoles µ 2 form an angle θ 2 with the Z axis, so that they have a vertical orientation in the case where θ 2 =0°, and a horizontal orientation in the case where θ 2 =90°. They are arranged at a distance h 2 vis-à-vis the upper face 6a. It is considered here that the extraction layer 6 forms a second optically linear, homogeneous and isotropic medium of refractive index n 2 , and that the surrounding medium forms a third optically linear, homogeneous and isotropic medium of refractive index n 3 . The distance h 2 is measured from the upper face 6a along the -Z direction. Also, a zero value h 2 corresponds to the upper face 6a. Sizing the thickness of the extraction layer 6 amounts to choosing the thickness along the Z axis of the dielectric material 6.2.

La figure 3B illustre un exemple d'évolutions, en fonction de la distance h2, de la durée de vie normalisée τn2,v d'un dipôle émetteur µ2 d'orientation verticale et celle τn2,h d'un dipôle émetteur µ2 d'orientation horizontale, dans le cas où le deuxième milieu homogène est réalisé à base d'un matériau diélectrique d'indice de réfraction n2=1.5, et où le troisième milieu homogène est de l'air, pour une longueur d'onde d'émission égale à 620nm. Les dipôles optiques µ2 sont ici associés à des boîtes quantiques 6.1 émettant dans le rouge. Cette figure illustre également l'évolution, en fonction de la distance h2, d'un paramètre S2 appelé sélectivité représentatif d'un écart entre ces deux durées de vie normalisées τn2,v, τn2,h.The Figure 3B illustrates an example of changes, as a function of the distance h 2 , of the normalized lifetime τ n2,v of an emitter dipole µ 2 of vertical orientation and that τ n2,h of an emitter dipole µ 2 d horizontal orientation, in the case where the second homogeneous medium is made from a dielectric material with a refractive index n 2 =1.5, and where the third homogeneous medium is air, for a wavelength d emission equal to 620 nm. The µ 2 optical dipoles are here associated with 6.1 quantum dots emitting in the red. This figure also illustrates the evolution, as a function of the distance h 2 , of a parameter S 2 called selectivity representative of a difference between these two normalized lifetimes τ n2,v , τ n2,h .

Il apparaît que les durées de vie normalisées τn2,v, τn2,h présentent une augmentation à partir de h2=0nm jusqu'à 50nm environ pour τn2,h et jusqu'à 150nm environ pour τn2,v. Ensuite, elles restent sensiblement constantes autour de 1.0 à mesure que h2 augmente, tout en présentant des oscillations amorties.It appears that the normalized lifetimes τ n2,v , τ n2,h show an increase from h 2 =0 nm up to around 50 nm for τ n2,h and up to around 150 nm for τ n2,v . Then, they remain substantially constant around 1.0 as h 2 increases, while exhibiting damped oscillations.

Il apparaît toutefois que la durée de vie associée à l'une des orientations prédomine sur la durée de vie associée à l'autre orientation pour plusieurs domaines Δhi=1,2... de distance h2 de la gamme Δh2ref, et que cette prédominance alterne en fonction de la distance h2.However, it appears that the lifetime associated with one of the orientations predominates over the lifetime associated with the other orientation for several domains Δh i=1.2... of distance h 2 from the range Δh 2ref , and that this predominance alternates as a function of the distance h 2 .

Aussi, il est possible de déterminer une distance h2s pour laquelle la durée de vie normalisée τn2,s associée à l'orientation choisie (parmi les orientations verticale et horizontale) des dipôles émetteurs µ2 est supérieure à la durée de vie normalisée τn,ns associée à l'autre orientation non choisie. Dans ce cas, les dipôles émetteurs µ2 présentant l'orientation choisie seront prépondérants sur ceux présentant l'orientation non choisie. La diode électroluminescente 1 peut alors être dimensionnée, en particulier l'épaisseur du matériau diélectrique 6.2 de la couche d'extraction 6, de sorte que les dipôles émetteurs µ2 soient situés à la distance h2s de la face supérieure 6a, et présentent donc l'orientation choisie. Les dipôles émetteurs µ2 peuvent ainsi, de préférence, présenter une orientation horizontale lorsque les particules nanométriques 6.1 sont des boîtes quantiques, ou présenter une orientation verticale lorsque les particules nanométriques 6.1 sont métalliques pour un effet plasmonique.Also, it is possible to determine a distance h 2s for which the normalized lifetime τ n2,s associated with the chosen orientation (among the vertical and horizontal orientations) of the emitter dipoles µ 2 is greater than the normalized lifetime τ n,ns associated with the other orientation not chosen. In this case, the emitter dipoles μ 2 exhibiting the chosen orientation will predominate over those exhibiting the non-chosen orientation. The light-emitting diode 1 can then be dimensioned, in particular the thickness of the dielectric material 6.2 of the extraction layer 6, so that the emitter dipoles µ 2 are located at the distance h 2s from the upper face 6a, and therefore have the direction chosen. The emitter dipoles μ 2 can thus preferably have a horizontal orientation when the nanometric particles 6.1 are quantum dots, or have a vertical orientation when the nanometric particles 6.1 are metallic for a plasmonic effect.

La figure 4 est un organigramme illustrant des étapes d'un procédé de fabrication d'une diode électroluminescente 1 selon un mode de réalisation. Le procédé de fabrication est ici illustré dans le cas d'une diode électroluminescente 1 comportant un empilement semiconducteur de type inorganique. Dans cet exemple, la première couche 11 est réalisée en GaN dopé N, et une couche active 13 est formée d'une couche émissive de puits quantique en InGaN. La couche d'extraction 6 est formée d'un matériau diélectrique 6.2 contenant des particules nanométriques 6.1.The figure 4 is a flowchart illustrating the steps of a method of manufacturing a light-emitting diode 1 according to one embodiment. The manufacturing process is illustrated here in the case of a light-emitting diode 1 comprising a semiconductor stack of inorganic type. In this example, the first layer 11 is made of N-doped GaN, and an active layer 13 is formed of an emissive quantum well layer of InGaN. The extraction layer 6 is formed of a dielectric material 6.2 containing nanometric particles 6.1.

Dans une étape 100, on choisit les matériaux de la première couche 11 et de la couche active 13 qui forment ensemble le premier milieu homogène d'indice de réfraction n1. Il s'agit ici d'un GaN dopé N et d'InGaN, dont l'indice de réfraction est sensiblement égal pour ces deux matériaux et correspond à 2.4764 à la longueur d'onde d'émission de 460nm. Dans le cas où les indices de réfraction ne sont pas identiques, on peut définir un indice de réfraction moyen à partir par exemple d'une pondération volumique des indices de réfraction. On choisit également le matériau de la couche d'extraction 6 qui forme le deuxième milieu homogène d'indice de réfraction n2 sensiblement égal à celui du matériau diélectrique 6.2.In a step 100, the materials of the first layer 11 and of the active layer 13 are chosen, which together form the first homogeneous medium of refractive index n 1 . This is an N-doped GaN and InGaN, the refractive index of which is substantially equal for these two materials and corresponds to 2.4764 at the emission wavelength of 460 nm. In the case where the refractive indices are not identical, one can define a average refractive index from, for example, a volume weighting of the refractive indices. The material of the extraction layer 6 which forms the second homogeneous medium with a refractive index n 2 substantially equal to that of the dielectric material 6.2 is also chosen.

Comme indiqué précédemment, la distance h1 correspond ici à la distance suivant l'axe Z entre, d'une part l'interface couche d'extraction 6 / première couche 11, et d'autre part la moitié de l'épaisseur de la couche active 13. Dans cet exemple, la couche active 13 est une couche émissive 13.1 de puits quantique de 3nm d'épaisseur, et on cherche à déterminer l'épaisseur de la première couche 11 de sorte que les dipôles émetteurs µ1 (situés en première approximation au centre de la couche active 13) soient situés à la distance h1s déterminée pour obtenir une orientation dipolaire verticale.As indicated above, the distance h 1 here corresponds to the distance along the Z axis between, on the one hand the extraction layer 6 / first layer 11 interface, and on the other hand half the thickness of the active layer 13. In this example, the active layer 13 is an emissive quantum well layer 13.1 3 nm thick, and it is sought to determine the thickness of the first layer 11 so that the emitter dipoles µ 1 (located in first approximation to the center of the active layer 13) are located at the distance h 1s determined to obtain a vertical dipole orientation.

Dans une étape 200, on détermine une valeur h1s de la distance h1 de sorte qu'une durée de vie des dipôles émetteurs µ1 ayant l'orientation verticale θv soit supérieure à celle des dipôles émetteurs µ1 ayant l'orientation horizontale θh. On utilise pour cela la fonction prédéterminée g exprimant une relation entre une durée de vie d'un dipôle optique ayant une orientation prédéfinie θ et la distance h. Cette fonction g est celle décrite précédemment, qui exprime l'évolution de la durée de vie normalisée τn d'un dipôle émetteur en fonction de la distance h, par le biais de la puissance optique rayonnée normalisée P/Po.In a step 200, a value h 1s of the distance h 1 is determined so that a lifetime of the emitter dipoles µ 1 having the vertical orientation θ v is greater than that of the emitter dipoles µ 1 having the horizontal orientation θh . For this, the predetermined function g is used, expressing a relationship between a lifetime of an optical dipole having a predefined orientation θ and the distance h. This function g is that described previously, which expresses the evolution of the normalized lifetime τ n of an emitter dipole as a function of the distance h, by means of the normalized radiated optical power P/Po.

Dans une sous-étape 210, on détermine l'évolution gh en fonction de h1 de la durée de vie normalisée τn1,h d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation horizontale θh, ainsi que l'évolution gv de la durée de vie normalisée τn1,v d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation verticale θv, sur une gamme de distance Δh1ref allant par exemple de 0nm à 500nm. Ces évolutions gh et gv sont déterminées à partir des relations τn = P0/P et P/P0= f(h) indiquées précédemment. On obtient ainsi τn1,v = gv(h1) et τn1,h = gh(h1) pour h1 quelconque compris dans la gamme Δh1ref.In a sub-step 210, the evolution g h as a function of h 1 of the normalized lifetime τ n1,h of an emitter dipole µ 1 of horizontal orientation θ h is determined, as well as the evolution g v the normalized lifetime τ n1,v of an emitter dipole µ 1 of vertical orientation θ v , over a distance range Δh 1ref ranging for example from 0 nm to 500 nm. These changes g h and g v are determined from the relationships τ n = P 0 /P and P/P 0 = f(h) indicated above. We thus obtain τ n1,v =g v (h 1 ) and τ n1,h =g h (h 1 ) for any h 1 included in the range Δh 1ref .

Dans une sous-étape 220, on détermine une valeur h1s telle que la durée de vie normalisée τn1,v du dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation verticale θv est supérieure à la durée de vie normalisée τn1,h du dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation horizontale θh, c'est-à-dire ici de sorte que τn1,v(h1s) > τn1,h(h1s). De plus, la valeur h1s est avantageusement déterminée de sorte que la sélectivité |S1(h1s)| est maximale sur au moins un domaine de la gamme Δh1ref, et de préférence sur toute la gamme Δh1ref, autrement dit |S1(h1s)| = maxΔh1ref(|S1(h1)|).In a sub-step 220, a value h 1s is determined such that the normalized lifetime τ n1,v of the emitter dipole µ 1 of vertical orientation θ v is greater than the normalized lifetime τ n1,h of the emitter dipole µ 1 of horizontal orientation θ h , that is to say here so that τ n1,v (h 1s ) > τ n1,h (h 1s ). Moreover, the value h 1s is advantageously determined so that the selectivity |S 1 (h 1s )| is maximum over at least one domain of the range Δh 1ref , and preferably over the entire range Δh 1ref , in other words |S 1 (h 1s )| = max Δh1ref (|S 1 (h 1 )|).

D'autres conditions peuvent être également prises en compte, comme par exemple le fait que la valeur h1s soit supérieure ou égale à une valeur minimale hth non nulle prédéfinie, par exemple pour optimiser la diffusion des porteurs de charge dans le plan XY au sein de la première couche 11 à partir de l'électrode cathodique 5 (illustrée sur la fig.1A).Other conditions can also be taken into account, such as for example the fact that the value h 1s is greater than or equal to a non-zero minimum value h th predefined, for example to optimize the diffusion of the charge carriers in the XY plane within the first layer 11 from the cathode electrode 5 (illustrated on the fig.1A ).

Dans une étape 300 facultative mais avantageuse, on détermine également une valeur h2s de la distance h2 de sorte qu'une durée de vie normalisée τn2,s des dipôles optiques µ2 , ayant une orientation choisie θ2s (parmi l'orientation horizontale θh et l'orientation verticale θv), soit supérieure à la durée de vie normalisée τn2,ns des dipôles optiques µ2 ayant l'orientation non choisie θns.In an optional but advantageous step 300, a value h 2s of the distance h 2 is also determined so that a normalized lifetime τ n2,s of the optical dipoles µ 2 , having a chosen orientation θ 2s (among the orientation horizontal θ h and the vertical orientation θ v ), or greater than the normalized lifetime τ n2,ns of the optical dipoles µ 2 having the non-chosen orientation θ ns .

Pour cela, dans une sous-étape 310, on choisit l'orientation souhaitée θ2s des dipôles optiques µ2 associés aux particules nanométriques 6.1, c'est-à-dire ici l'angle θ2 que forme le moment dipolaire µ2 vis-à-vis de l'axe Z orthogonal, parmi l'orientation verticale θv2=0°) et l'orientation horizontale θh2=90°). Dans cet exemple, l'orientation choisie θ2s est l'orientation horizontale θh2s=90°).For this, in a sub-step 310, the desired orientation θ 2s of the optical dipoles µ 2 associated with the nanometric particles 6.1 is chosen, that is to say here the angle θ 2 formed by the dipole moment µ 2 vis -with respect to the orthogonal Z axis, among the vertical orientation θ v2 =0°) and the horizontal orientation θ h2 =90°). In this example, the chosen orientation θ 2s is the horizontal orientation θ h2s =90°).

Dans une sous-étape 320, on détermine l'évolution gh en fonction de h2 de la durée de vie normalisée τn2,h d'un dipôle optique µ2 d'orientation horizontale θh, ainsi que l'évolution gv de la durée de vie normalisée τn2,v d'un dipôle optique µ2 d'orientation verticale θv, sur une gamme de distance Δh2ref allant par exemple de 0nm à 300nm.In a sub-step 320, the evolution g h as a function of h 2 of the normalized lifetime τ n2,h of an optical dipole µ 2 of horizontal orientation θ h is determined, as well as the evolution g v the normalized lifetime τ n2,v of an optical dipole µ 2 of vertical orientation θ v , over a distance range Δh 2ref ranging for example from 0 nm to 300 nm.

Dans une sous-étape 330, on compare la durée de vie normalisée τn2,h du dipôle optique µ2 d'orientation choisie à la durée de vie normalisée τn2,v du dipôle optique µ2 d'orientation non choisie τn,v pour tout h2 compris dans Δh2ref. On détermine avantageusement le paramètre de sélectivité S2 telle que, pour tout h2 compris dans Δh2ref, la valeur absolue |S2| de la sélectivité S2 est égale à la valeur absolue de la différence entre la durée de vie normalisée τn2,s du dipôle optique µ2 d'orientation choisie et la durée de vie normalisée τn2,ns du dipôle optique µ2 d'orientation non choisie, c'est-à-dire ici : |S2(h2)| = | τn2,s(h2) - τn2,ns(h2) |.In a sub-step 330, the normalized lifetime τ n2,h of the optical dipole µ 2 of chosen orientation is compared with the normalized lifetime τ n2,v of the optical dipole µ 2 of non-chosen orientation τ n, v for all h 2 included in Δh 2ref . The selectivity parameter S 2 is advantageously determined such that, for all h 2 included in Δh 2ref , the absolute value |S 2 | of the selectivity S 2 is equal to the absolute value of the difference between the normalized lifetime τ n2,s of the optical dipole µ 2 of chosen orientation and the normalized lifetime τ n2,ns of the optical dipole µ 2 of orientation not chosen, that is to say here: |S 2 (h 2 )| = | τ n2,s (h 2 ) - τ n2,ns (h 2 ) |.

Dans une sous-étape 340, on détermine alors une valeur h2s telle que la durée de vie normalisée τn2,s du dipôle optique µ2 d'orientation choisie θs est supérieure à la durée de vie normalisée τn2,ns du dipôle optique µ2 d'orientation non choisie θns, c'est-à-dire ici de sorte que τn2,s(h2s) > τn2,ns(h2s). De plus, la valeur h2s est avantageusement déterminée de sorte que la sélectivité |S2(h2s)| est maximale sur au moins un domaine de la gamme Δh2ref, et de préférence sur toute la gamme Δh2ref, autrement dit |S2(h2s)| = maxΔh2ref(|S2(h2)|).In a sub-step 340, a value h 2s is then determined such that the normalized lifetime τ n2,s of the optical dipole µ 2 of chosen orientation θ s is greater than the normalized lifetime τ n2,ns of the dipole optic µ 2 of non-chosen orientation θ ns , that is to say here so that τ n2,s (h 2s ) > τ n2,ns (h 2s ). Moreover, the value h 2s is advantageously determined so that the selectivity |S 2 (h 2s )| is maximum over at least one domain of the range Δh 2ref , and preferably over the entire range Δh 2ref , in other words |S 2 (h 2s )| = max Δh2ref (|S 2 (h 2 )|).

Dans une étape 400, on fabrique la diode électroluminescente 1 de sorte que les dipôles émetteurs µ1 soient situés à la distance h1s de la couche d'extraction 6. Dans le cas où la couche active 13 présente des dimensions fixées, par exemple 3nm pour une couche de puits quantique et 12nm pour une couche barrière, on détermine l'épaisseur de la première couche 11 de sorte que la somme de cette épaisseur et de la moitié de la couche active 13 soit égale à la valeur déterminée h1s, par exemple à 10nm près, voire à 5nm près.In a step 400, the light-emitting diode 1 is manufactured so that the emitter dipoles μ 1 are located at the distance h 1s from the extraction layer 6. In the case where the active layer 13 has fixed dimensions, for example 3 nm for a quantum well layer and 12nm for a barrier layer, the thickness of the first layer 11 so that the sum of this thickness and half of the active layer 13 is equal to the determined value h 1s , for example to within 10 nm, or even within 5 nm.

Aussi, les dipôles émetteurs µ1 associés aux recombinaisons radiatives des paires électron-trou dans la couche active 13 présentent essentiellement l'orientation verticale θv. On améliore ainsi le rendement lumineux de la diode électroluminescente 1 par un couplage non radiatif en champ proche de type dipôle-dipôle entre les dipôles émetteurs µ1 et les dipôles optiques µ2 .Also, the emitter dipoles μ 1 associated with the radiative recombinations of the electron-hole pairs in the active layer 13 essentially have the vertical orientation θ v . The luminous efficiency of the light-emitting diode 1 is thus improved by a non-radiative coupling in the near field of the dipole-dipole type between the emitting dipoles µ 1 and the optical dipoles µ 2 .

Par ailleurs, on détermine l'épaisseur de la couche d'extraction 6, en particulier l'épaisseur du matériau diélectrique 6.2, les particules nanométriques 6.1 restant avantageusement à l'interface avec la première couche 11, de sorte que les dipôles optiques µ2 soient situés à la distance h2s vis-à-vis de l'interface à l'air (face 6a), et présentent ainsi l'orientation choisie θ2s. Cela contribue également à améliorer le rendement lumineux de la diode électroluminescente 1.Furthermore, the thickness of the extraction layer 6 is determined, in particular the thickness of the dielectric material 6.2, the nanometric particles 6.1 advantageously remaining at the interface with the first layer 11, so that the optical dipoles μ 2 are located at the distance h 2s with respect to the air interface (face 6a), and thus have the chosen orientation θ 2s . This also contributes to improving the light output of the light-emitting diode 1.

Par ailleurs, le procédé de fabrication peut comporter une phase de dimensionnement de la deuxième couche 12 disposée entre la couche active 13 et l'électrode réflectrice 4 (anode). Ainsi, il est également avantageux de dimensionner cette couche 12 de sorte que les dipôles émetteurs µ1 présentent l'orientation verticale θ1v.Furthermore, the manufacturing method may include a dimensioning phase of the second layer 12 placed between the active layer 13 and the reflective electrode 4 (anode). Thus, it is also advantageous to dimension this layer 12 so that the emitter dipoles µ 1 have the vertical orientation θ 1v .

La figure 5A est une vue schématique et partielle de la diode électroluminescente illustrée sur la fig.2A. La deuxième couche 12 et la couche active 13 forme le même premier milieu homogène d'indice de réfraction n1. Le quatrième milieu optiquement linéaire, homogène et isotrope, d'indice optique n4 est formé par l'électrode réflectrice 4 d'indice de réfraction n4. La couche active 13, et plus précisément les dipôles émetteurs µ1 , sont disposés à une distance h1' vis-à-vis de l'électrode réflectrice 4. La distance h1' est mesurée à partir de l'électrode réflectrice 4 suivant la direction +Z. Aussi, une valeur h1' nulle correspond à l'interface entre la deuxième couche 12 et l'électrode réflectrice 4.The figure 5A is a schematic and partial view of the light-emitting diode illustrated in the fig.2A . The second layer 12 and the active layer 13 form the same first homogeneous medium of refractive index n 1 . The fourth optically linear, homogeneous and isotropic medium, of optical index n 4 is formed by the reflective electrode 4 of refractive index n 4 . The active layer 13, and more specifically the emitter dipoles μ 1 , are arranged at a distance h 1' vis-à-vis the reflective electrode 4. The distance h 1' is measured from the reflective electrode 4 according to the +Z direction. Also, a value h 1′ of zero corresponds to the interface between the second layer 12 and the reflective electrode 4.

La figure 5B illustre un exemple d'évolutions, en fonction de la distance h1', de la durée de vie normalisée τn1',v d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation verticale, et la durée de vie normalisée τn1',h d'un dipôle émetteur µ1 d'orientation horizontale. Elle illustre également l'évolution en fonction de h1' de la sélectivité S1'.The figure 5B illustrates an example of changes, as a function of the distance h 1' , of the normalized lifetime τ n1',v of a transmitter dipole µ 1 of vertical orientation, and the normalized lifetime τ n1',h of an emitter dipole µ 1 of horizontal orientation. It also illustrates the evolution as a function of h 1' of the selectivity S 1' .

Dans cet exemple, le premier milieu homogène d'indice de réfraction n1 est formé de la deuxième couche 12 en GaN dopé P et d'une couche émissive en InGaN (pas de couche barrière en GaN intrinsèque). Le quatrième milieu homogène est formé par l'électrode réflectrice 4 réalisée ici en or, dont l'indice optique n4 est égal à 1.3489+i×1.8851 à 460nm.In this example, the first homogeneous medium of refractive index n 1 is formed of the second layer 12 of P-doped GaN and of an emissive layer of InGaN (no barrier layer of intrinsic GaN). The fourth homogeneous medium is formed by the reflective electrode 4 made here of gold, whose optical index n 4 is equal to 1.3489+i×1.8851 at 460 nm.

La durée de vie normalisée τn1' des dipôles émetteurs µ1 présentant une orientation horizontale ou verticale augmente à partir d'une valeur nulle pour h1' égal à zéro jusqu'à un premier pic, puis tend vers une même valeur constante en présentant des oscillations amorties. Les valeurs constantes sont sensiblement égales pour les deux orientations. Cependant, les oscillations n'étant pas en phase l'une avec l'autre, il existe des domaines Δhi=1,2... de la gamme Δh1ref pour lesquels la durée de vie normalisée associée à l'une des orientations est prépondérante sur la durée de vie normalisée associée à l'autre orientation. Il est alors possible de dimensionner la diode électroluminescente 1, en particulier de choisir une valeur de la distance h1s', de sorte que les dipôles émetteurs µ1 présentent de manière prépondérante l'orientation verticale.The normalized lifetime τ n1' of emitter dipoles µ 1 having a horizontal or vertical orientation increases from a zero value for h 1' equal to zero up to a first peak, then tends towards the same constant value by presenting damped oscillations. The constant values are substantially equal for the two orientations. However, the oscillations not being in phase with each other, there are domains Δh i=1.2... of the range Δh 1ref for which the normalized lifetime associated with one of the orientations is preponderant over the normalized lifetime associated with the other orientation. It is then possible to dimension the light-emitting diode 1, in particular to choose a value for the distance h 1s′ , so that the emitter dipoles µ 1 present predominantly the vertical orientation.

Dans cet exemple, les dipôles émetteurs µ1 d'orientation verticale sont prépondérants dans les domaines Δh2, Δh4, Δh6 de la gamme Δhref allant de zéro à 300nm. Et les dipôles émetteurs µ1 d'orientation horizontale sont prépondérants dans les domaines Δh1, Δh3, Δh5, Δh7. Ainsi, une distance h1s' comprise dans le domaine Δh2 ou Δh4, par exemple, permettra d'obtenir des recombinaisons radiatives des paires électron-trou dont le rayonnement émis correspond à celui de dipôles émetteurs µ1 présentant une orientation essentiellement verticale.In this example, the emitter dipoles µ 1 of vertical orientation are preponderant in the domains Δh 2 , Δh 4 , Δh 6 of the range Δh ref going from zero to 300 nm. And the transmitter dipoles µ 1 of horizontal orientation are preponderant in the domains Δh 1 , Δh 3 , Δh 5 , Δh 7 . Thus, a distance h 1s' comprised in the domain Δh 2 or Δh 4 , for example, will make it possible to obtain radiative recombinations of the electron-hole pairs whose emitted radiation corresponds to that of emitter dipoles µ 1 exhibiting an essentially vertical orientation.

Comme mentionné précédemment, pour obtenir une prépondérance des dipôles émetteurs µ1 ayant l'orientation choisie sur ceux ayant l'orientation non choisie, il importe que la durée de vie des dipôles émetteurs µ1 ayant l'orientation choisie soit supérieure à celle des dipôles émetteurs ayant l'autre orientation.As mentioned above, to obtain a preponderance of emitter dipoles µ 1 having the chosen orientation over those having the non-chosen orientation, it is important that the lifetime of the emitter dipoles µ 1 having the chosen orientation be greater than that of the dipoles transmitters with the other orientation.

La sélectivité S1' s'annule ainsi entre chaque domaine Δhi et présente une valeur maximale pour chacune d'entre elles. A titre d'exemple, la sélectivité présente une valeur de 0.18 pour 18nm dans Δh1 (orientation horizontale), une valeur de 0.36 pour 46nm dans Δh2 (orientation verticale), une valeur de 0.15 pour 90nm dans Δh3 (orientation horizontale), et une valeur de 0.08 pour 140nm dans Δh4 (orientation verticale). Il apparaît donc que les différents domaines ne présentent pas une sélectivité S1' de même intensité, signe que les durées de vie normalisées évoluent en fonction de la distance h1' sous forme d'oscillations amorties.The selectivity S 1' thus vanishes between each domain Δh i and has a maximum value for each of them. For example, the selectivity has a value of 0.18 for 18nm in Δh 1 (horizontal orientation), a value of 0.36 for 46nm in Δh 2 (vertical orientation), a value of 0.15 for 90nm in Δh 3 (horizontal orientation) , and a value of 0.08 for 140nm in Δh 4 (vertical orientation). It therefore appears that the different domains do not present a selectivity S 1' of the same intensity, a sign that the normalized lifetimes evolve as a function of the distance h 1' in the form of damped oscillations.

Ainsi, pour améliorer le rendement lumineux d'une diode électroluminescente 1, il est possible de dimensionner celle-ci de sorte que les dipôles émetteurs µ1 présentent une orientation verticale. Pour cela, la distance h1s' est choisie dans l'un des domaines Δhi de la gamme Δh1ref pour lesquelles la durée de vie des dipôles émetteurs µ1 ayant l'orientation verticale est supérieure à celle des dipôles émetteurs µ1 ayant l'orientation horizontale. De plus, la distance h1s' est avantageusement déterminée de sorte que la sélectivité S1' présente un maximum dans la gamme de distance Δh1ref déterminée. Dans cet exemple, pour obtenir une prédominance des dipôles émetteurs µ1 d'orientation verticale, il est avantageux que la distance h1s' soit égale à 54nm dans la mesure où la sélectivité S1' présente un maximum égal à 0.38.Thus, to improve the luminous efficiency of a light-emitting diode 1, it is possible to dimension the latter so that the emitter dipoles μ 1 have a vertical orientation. For this, the distance h 1s' is chosen in one of the domains Δh i of the range Δh 1ref for which the lifetime of the emitter dipoles µ 1 having the orientation vertical is greater than that of the emitter dipoles µ 1 having the horizontal orientation. Moreover, the distance h 1s' is advantageously determined so that the selectivity S 1' exhibits a maximum in the distance range Δh 1ref determined. In this example, to obtain a predominance of emitter dipoles µ 1 of vertical orientation, it is advantageous for the distance h 1s' to be equal to 54 nm insofar as the selectivity S 1' has a maximum equal to 0.38.

Des modes de réalisation particuliers viennent d'être décrits. Différentes variantes et modifications apparaîtront à l'homme du métier. La portée de l'invention est définie par les revendications.Particular embodiments have just been described. Various variations and modifications will occur to those skilled in the art. The scope of the invention is defined by the claims.

Claims (12)

  1. A method for producing at least one light-emitting diode (1) comprising:
    • a semiconductor stack formed of a first semiconductor layer (11), of a second semiconductor layer (12), and of an active layer (13) located between the two semiconductor layers (11, 12), and
    • an extraction layer (6), made of a transparent dielectric material comprising nanoscale particles (6.1), extending in contact with the first semiconductor layer,
    o the method comprising the following step:
    o choosing (100) the materials of the first semiconductor layer (11) and of the active layer (13), and of the extraction layer (6);
    o the method being characterized in that it comprises the following steps:
    o determining (200) a first non-zero distance (h1s) between, on the one hand, emitting dipoles (µ1 ) associated with the radiative recombination of electron-hole pairs in the active layer (13) and, on the other hand, the extraction layer (6), for which:
    • a lifetime (τn,v) of the emitting dipoles (µ1 ), having a vertical orientation (θv) along an axis orthogonal to the plane of the active layer (13), is longer than the lifetime (τn,h) of the emitting dipoles (µ1 ) having a horizontal orientation (θh) along an axis parallel to the plane of the active layer (13),
    - on the basis of a predetermined function (gh,v) expressing a change in a parameter representative of the lifetime of an emitting dipole (µ1 ) having a predefined orientation (θh; θv) according to its distance (h1) from the extraction layer (6), taking into account optical properties (n1, n2) of said materials chosen;
    • optical dipoles (µ2 ) associated with the nanoscale particles (6.1) are located in the near field of the emitting dipoles (µ1 ), so as to allow non-radiative coupling of dipole-dipole type between the emitting dipoles (µ1 ) and the optical dipoles (µ2 );
    o producing (400) the light-emitting diode (1), a thickness of the first semiconductor layer (11) being such that the emitting dipoles (µ1 ) are located at the first determined distance (h1s) with respect to the extraction layer (6), the emitting dipoles (µ1 ) then being oriented orthogonally to the plane of the active layer (13).
  2. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the nanoscale particles (6.1) are quantum dots made of semiconductor nanocrystals, and/or are made of at least one metal material.
  3. The method as claimed in claim 1 or 2, wherein the nanoscale particles (6.1) have a mean diameter of between 0.2 nm and 500 nm.
  4. The method as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the nanoscale particles (6.1) extend in a plane parallel to the active layer (13), and are arranged at the interface with the first semiconductor layer (11).
  5. The method as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein the first determined distance (h1s) is smaller than or equal to 50 nm, thus optimizing the non-radiative coupling of dipole-dipole type between the emitting dipoles (µ1 ) and the optical dipoles (µ2 ).
  6. The method as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 5, wherein the first determined distance (h1s) is defined along an axis orthogonal to the plane of the active layer (13), from an interface between the extraction layer (6) and the first semiconductor layer (11) to a plane passing through halfway through a thickness of the active layer (13).
  7. The method as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 6, wherein the active layer (13) comprises at least one quantum well emissive layer (13.1), and a barrier layer (13.2) located between the first semiconductor layer (11) and the emissive layer (13.1), the determined distance (h1s) being defined along an axis orthogonal to the plane of the active layer (13), between, on the one hand, the interface between the extraction layer (6) and the first semiconductor layer (11), and, on the other hand, a plane passing through halfway through the thickness of the emissive layer (13.1).
  8. The method as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 7, comprising a step (300) of determining a second non-zero distance (h2s) between the optical dipoles (µ2 ) associated with the nanoscale particles (6.1) and a surrounding medium extending in contact with an upper face (6a) of the extraction layer (6) opposite the first semiconductor layer (11), comprising the following sub-steps:
    • choosing (310) an orientation (θ2s) of the optical dipoles (µ2 ) with respect to a plane of the extraction layer (6), from among:
    - a horizontal orientation (θ2h) for which the optical dipoles (µ2 ) are oriented so as to be parallel to the plane of the extraction layer (6), and
    - a vertical orientation (θ2v) for which the optical dipoles (µ2 ) are oriented so as to be orthogonal to the plane of the extraction layer (6);
    • determining (320, 330, 340) the second distance (h2s) between the optical dipoles (µ2) and the surrounding medium, for which a lifetime (τn2,s) of the optical dipoles (µ2 ) having the chosen orientation is longer than that of the optical dipoles (µ2 ) having the non-chosen orientation (τn2,ns),
    - on the basis of a predetermined function (gh,v) expressing a change in a parameter representative of the lifetime of an optical dipole (µ2 ) having a predefined orientation (θh; θv) according to its distance (h2) from the surrounding medium, taking into account the optical properties (n2, n3) of the extraction layer (6) and of the surrounding medium;
    o producing (400) the light-emitting diode (1), a thickness of the dielectric material (6.2) of the extraction layer (6) being such that the optical dipoles (µ2 ) are located at the second determined distance (h2s) with respect to the surrounding medium, the optical dipoles (µ2 ) then being oriented according to the chosen orientation (θ2s) with respect to the plane of the extraction layer (6).
  9. The method as claimed in claim 8, wherein the step (300) of determining the second distance (h2s) comprises the following sub-steps:
    • determining (320), over a predefined distance range (Δh2ref), the change according to distance (h2) in the parameter (τn2,s) representative of the lifetime of the optical dipole (µ2 ) having the chosen orientation (θ2s), and the change according to distance (h2) in the parameter (τn,ns) representative of the lifetime of the optical dipole (µ2 ) having the non-chosen orientation (θ2ns);
    • determining (330) a difference parameter (S2) representative of a difference in the parameter (τn2,s) representative of the lifetime of the optical dipole (µ2 ) having the chosen orientation (θ2s) with respect to the parameter (τ2n,ns) representative of the lifetime of the optical dipole (µ2 ) having the non-chosen orientation (θ2ns), over said predefined distance range (Δh2ref);
    • determining (340) a non-zero distance (h2s) such that:
    - the parameter (τn2,s) representative of the lifetime of the optical dipole (µ2 ) having the chosen orientation (θ2s) is greater, for the determined distance (h2s), than the parameter (τn2,ns) representative of the lifetime of the optical dipole (µ2 ) having the non-chosen orientation (θ2ns), and that
    - the difference parameter (S2) has, for the determined distance (h2s), a maximum value over at least a portion of the distance range (Δh2ref).
  10. The method as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 9, comprising:
    o a step of determining a third non-zero distance (h1s') between the emitting dipoles (µ1 ) and a reflective electrode (4) extending in contact with the second semiconductor layer (12), for which a lifetime (τn1',s) of the emitting dipoles (µ1 ) having the vertical orientation is longer than that of the emitting dipoles (µ1 ) having the horizontal orientation (τn1',h),
    • on the basis of a predetermined function (gh,v) expressing a change in a parameter representative of the lifetime of an emitting dipole (µ1 ) having a predefined orientation (θh; θv) according to its distance (h1') from the reflective electrode (4), taking into account the optical properties (n1, n4) of the active layer (13) and of the second semiconductor layer (12), and of the reflective electrode (4);
    o producing (400) the light-emitting diode (1), a thickness of the second semiconductor layer (12) being such that the emitting dipoles (µ1 ) are located at the third determined distance (h1s') with respect to the reflective electrode (4), the emitting dipoles (µ1 ) then being oriented orthogonally to the plane of the active layer (13).
  11. The method as claimed in claim 10, wherein the reflective electrode (4) is an anode capable of injecting holes into the semiconductor stack, and the second semiconductor layer (12) is made of a P-doped semiconductor crystalline material, or is made of a hole-conducting organic semiconductor material.
  12. The method as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 11, wherein the first semiconductor layer (11) is made of an N-doped semiconductor crystalline material, or is made of an electron-conducting organic semiconductor material.
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