Classifications

• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K49/00—Preparations for testing in vivo
  • A61K49/0002—General or multifunctional contrast agents, e.g. chelated agents
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K49/00—Preparations for testing in vivo
  • A61K49/001—Preparation for luminescence or biological staining
  • A61K49/0013—Luminescence
  • A61K49/0017—Fluorescence in vivo
  • A61K49/0019—Fluorescence in vivo characterised by the fluorescent group, e.g. oligomeric, polymeric or dendritic molecules
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K49/00—Preparations for testing in vivo
  • A61K49/001—Preparation for luminescence or biological staining
  • A61K49/0013—Luminescence
  • A61K49/0017—Fluorescence in vivo
  • A61K49/005—Fluorescence in vivo characterised by the carrier molecule carrying the fluorescent agent
  • A61K49/0056—Peptides, proteins, polyamino acids
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K49/00—Preparations for testing in vivo
  • A61K49/06—Nuclear magnetic resonance [NMR] contrast preparations; Magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] contrast preparations
  • A61K49/08—Nuclear magnetic resonance [NMR] contrast preparations; Magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] contrast preparations characterised by the carrier
  • A61K49/10—Organic compounds
  • A61K49/14—Peptides, e.g. proteins

Definitions

• This invention relates to diagnostic imaging, and more particularly to novel contrast agent preparations and their use in diagnostic imaging, for example in visualizing tissue.
• Imaging technology including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), X-ray, positron emission tomography (PET), magnetography, and computed tomography (CT) scanning, has a vital role in the detection and treatment of cancer lesions and other illnesses.
• MRI technology provides a powerful, non-invasive tool to map and explore the structure and function of soft tissues.
• MRI through the use of high-strength magnets and radio-frequency signals can produce three- dimensional images of tissues.
• mechanical imaging system it is possible to detect neoplastic lesions; the detection of early tumor lesions and metastases still remains challenging.
• Contrast agents have been used to improve the intrinsic contrast of the images from imaging technology. This method relies on the administration of contrast agents to amplify the contrast in imaging between the pathological tissue and the normal tissue.
• the most widely used class of MRI contrast agents are based on gadolinium ion (Gd 3+ ), manganese ion (Mn 2+ ), and iron ion (Fe 3+ ) chelates that are strictly extracellular low molecular weight compounds with T1 reflexivity such as diethylenetriaminepentaacetate (DTPA).
• DTPA diethylenetriaminepentaacetate
• the efficacy of a contrast agent depends on both the inherent capability to improve images and the pharmacokinetics.
• the Gd 3+ based contrast agents approved for clinical use are mainly non-specific small molecules.
• Such Gd 3+ contrast agents usually have relaxivities of ⁇ 10 mM ' V 1 which are 20 to 50 fold lower than the predicted values. The relaxivities are mainly limited by the rotational correlation time of the molecule.
• the most commonly used contrast agent, DTPA has a R1 relaxivity of 5 mM ' V 1 . With this relaxivity, a robust clinical examination usually requires a large dose (> 0.1 mM local concentration) in order to reach sufficient contrast or to produce an acceptable image.
• this class of contrast agents has a very short circulation time that limits the time window for data collection. Efforts to improve such contrast agents have included the covalent or the non-covalent linkage of the small Gd agent to the macromoiecules, such as dendrimers or copolymers.
• contrast agents with higher capabilities to enhance imaging signals.
• novel protein-based MRI contrast agents with wide applicability in molecular imaging of various tissues, tumors, cancers, and diseases.
• contrast agents that can be retained longer in tissue and blood vessels, especially in that of animals and humans.
• contrast agents in which the chelating site may be tailored for specific applications and the imaging techniques. It is to these needs among others that this invention is directed.
• this invention is directed to a novel group of contrast agents having tuned properties for diagnostic imaging. More particularly, this invention is directed to a class of magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents that accumulates in tissue.
• the novel contrast agents comprise a scaffold protein that can be an organic polymer such a protein and at least one tailored metal ion binding site capable of chelating paramagnetic and heavy metal ions.
• the at least one tailored metal ion binding site is integrated into select folding pockets within the scaffold protein. In most cases, more than one site can be integrated into the scaffold protein.
• the novel contrast agents can be developed by designing tailored binding sites and integrating these sites into scaffold proteins.
• the binding site can be developed by a design approach or by a grafting approach. Further, other approaches, known or developed hereafter, can be used to design binding sites suitable with this invention. After the site has been developed, the site or sites are operatively integrated into the select areas of the scaffold protein. The contrast agent then may be administered to animals or humans through known delivery methods.
• FIG. 1A shows an exemplary contrast agent prepared according to this invention.
• FIG. 1B shows another exemplary contrast agent prepared according to this invention.
• FIG. 1 C shows another exemplary contrast agent prepared according to this invention.
• FIG. 1D shows another exemplary contrast agent prepared according to this invention.
• FIG. 1 E shows another exemplary contrast agent prepared according to this invention.
• FIG. 2 is schematic diagram of a contrast agent according to an illustrative embodiment of this invention.
• FIG. 3A shows MR images produced by various contrast agents and DTPA.
• FIG. 3B shows the proton relaxivity of different contrast agents compared to DTPA.
• FIG. 4A shows the dynamic properties of an engineered metal binding protein with discontinuous ligand residues.
• FIG. 4B shows the dynamic properties (T1 time) of CA1-CD2 with a continuous metal binding site.
• FIG. 5A is a diagnostic image of a mouse prior to being administered an exemplary contrast agent according to this invention.
• FIG. 5B is another diagnostic image of a mouse that has been administered an exemplary contrast agent according to this invention.
• FIG. 5C is another diagnostic image of a mouse that has been administered an exemplary contrast agent according to this invention.
• FIG. 5D is another diagnostic image of a mouse that has been administered an exemplary contrast agent according to this invention.
• FIG. 6 shows the viability of various contrast agents according to this invention in human serum.
• FIG. 7 shows the amino acid sequence (artificial sequence) of an exemplary contrasts agent according to this invention having albumin as a scaffold protein.
• FIGs. 8-21 show the amino acid sequences (artificial sequence) of exemplary contrasts agents according to this invention having CD2 as the scaffold protein.
• FIGs. 22-25 show the amino acid sequences (artificial sequences) of exemplary contrasts agents according to this invention having GFP as the scaffold protein.
• nucleic acid molecule or “polynucleotide” refers to a deoxyribonucleotide or ribonucleotide polymer in either single-stranded or double- stranded form, and, unless specifically indicated otherwise, encompasses polynucleotides containing known analogs of naturally occurring nucleotides that can function in a similar manner as naturally occurring nucleotides. For example, This term can refer to single and double stranded forms of DNA or RNA. Nucleic acid sequences are readily apparent from
• recombinant nucleic acid molecule refers to a non-naturally occurring polynucleotide containing two or more linked polynucleotide sequences.
• a recombinant nucleic acid molecule can be produced by recombination methods, particularly genetic engineering techniques, or can be produced by a chemical synthesis method.
• a recombinant nucleic acid molecule can encode a fusion protein, for example, a fluorescent protein linked to a polypeptide of interest.
• recombinant host cell refers to a cell that contains or can express a recombinant nucleic acid molecule.
• encoding in the context of a polypeptide refers to the transcription of the polynucleotide and translation of the mRNA produced therefrom.
• the encoding polynucleotide is considered to include both the coding strand, whose nucleotide sequence can be identical to an mRNA, as well as its complementary strand. It will be recognized that encoding polynucleotides are considered to include degenerate nucleotide sequences, which encode the same amino acid residues. Nucleotide sequences encoding a polypeptide can include polynucleotides containing introns and exons. Nucleic acid sequences are readily apparent from amino acid sequence and vice versa.
• control sequences refer to polynucleotide sequences that are necessary to effect the expression of coding and non-coding sequences. Such control sequences can include a promoter, a ribosomal binding site, and a transcription termination sequence.
• control sequences is intended to include, at a minimum, components whose presence can influence expression and can also include additional components whose presence is advantageous. For example, leader sequences and fusion partner sequences are control sequences.
• operatively incorporated refers to polypeptide sequences that are placed in a physical and functional relationship to each other.
• the functions of the polypeptide components of the chimeric molecule are unchanged compared to the functional activities of the parts in isolation.
• a fluorescent protein can be fused to a polypeptide of interest and in the fused state retain its fluorescence while the polypeptide of interest retains its original biological activity.
• the term "brightness,” with reference to a fluorescent protein is measured as the product of the extinction coefficient (EC) at a given wavelength and the fluorescence quantum yield (QY).
• probe refers to a substance that specifically binds to another substance (a "target”).
• Probes include, for example, antibodies, polynucleotides, receptors and their ligands, and generally can be labeled so as to provide a means to identify or isolate a molecule to which the probe has specifically bound.
• isolated refers to a material that is substantially or essentially free from components that normally accompany the material in its native state in nature. Purity generally can be determined using analytical chemistry techniques such as polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, high performance liquid chromatography, and the like. A polynucleotide or a polypeptide is considered to be isolated when it is the least predominant species present in a preparation.
• Naturally-occurring refers to a protein, nucleic acid molecule, cell, or other material that occurs in nature.
• a naturally occurring material can be in its form as it exists in nature, and can be modified by the hand of man such that, for example, it is in an isolated form.
• Two or more amino acid sequences or two or more nucleotide sequences are considered to be “substantially identical” or “substantially similar” if the amino acid sequences or the nucleotide sequences share at least 80% sequence identity with each other, or with a reference sequence over a given comparison window.
• substantially similar sequences include those having, for example, at least 85% sequence identity, at least 90% sequence identity, at least 95% sequence identity, or at least 99% sequence identity.
• Two or more amino acid sequences or two or more nucleotide sequences are considered to be “similar” if the amino acid sequences or the nucleotide sequences share at least 50% sequence identity with each other, or with a reference sequence over a given comparison window.
• substantially similar sequences include nucleotide sequences considered to be “substantially identical” or “substantially similar”.
• fluorescent properties refers to the molar extinction coefficient at an appropriate excitation wavelength, the fluorescence quantum efficiency, the shape of the excitation spectrum or emission spectrum, the excitation wavelength maximum and emission wavelength maximum, the ratio of excitation amplitudes at two different wavelengths, the ratio of emission amplitudes at two different wavelengths, the excited state lifetime, or the fluorescence anisotropy.
• fluorescent protein refers to any protein capable of light emission when excited with an appropriate electromagnetic energy. Fluorescent proteins include proteins having amino acid sequences that are either natural or engineered, such as the fluorescent proteins derived from Aequorea victoria fluorescent proteins.
• mutant or “variant” also is used herein in reference to a fluorescent protein that contains a mutation with respect to a corresponding wild type fluorescent protein.
• spectral variant or “spectral mutant” of a fluorescent protein to indicate a mutant fluorescent protein that has a different fluorescence characteristic with respect to the corresponding wild type fluorescent protein.
• Embodiments of this invention include contrast agents capable of enhancing image contrast by affecting water molecule proton relaxation rates. Such contrasts agents are effective for magnetic resonance imaging, in part, because the water proton relaxation rate in the target tissue is affected differently than the relaxation rate of the water protons in the surrounding tissue.
• the contrasts agents as disclosed herein are paramagnetic species, which form complexes with metal ions, so to alter the relaxation rates of adjacent nuclei. More particularly, this invention is directed to a novel group of diagnostic contrast agents having tuned properties, even more particularly, to a class of magnetic resonance contrast agents that accumulates in tissue.
• the novel contrast agent comprises (a) a scaffold protein that can be an organic polymer such a protein and (b) at least one tailored metal ion binding site capable of chelating paramagnetic and heavy metal ions, wherein the at least one tailored metal ion binding site is integrated into select folding pockets within the scaffold protein.
• the novel contrast agents can be developed by designing tailored binding sites and operatively integrating these sites into scaffold proteins.
• the binding site may be developed by a design approach or by a grafting approach. After the site has been developed, the site or sites are operatively integrated into the select areas of the scaffold protein.
• the contrast agent then may be administered to animals or humans through known delivery methods.
• At least one of the metal chelating sites is embedded in the scaffold protein.
• the metal chelating site can be placed within the scaffold protein such that the metal chelating sites are within the interior of the contrast agent.
• at least one of the metal chelating sites is embedded using amino acids of the scaffold proteins as ligands to chelate the metal ion. More preferably, the at least one metal binding site is embedded within the protein such that the scaffold protein has a correlation at least in part resembling the protein itself.
• a rotational correlation time optimized for the magnetic field e.g. around 100 milliseconds in a magnetic flied of 1.3 to 3T
• a rotational correlation time optimized for the magnetic field e.g. around 100 milliseconds in a magnetic flied of 1.3 to 3T
• Preferred properties of the scaffold protein also may include water solubility, low interaction with the other cellular metal ions and low toxicity. While of all these properties are not required, the optimal properties of the scaffold protein can and do depend on the specific parameters of the imaging application.
• the scaffold protein has a folded conformation, three-dimensional structure or an amino sequence with some homology to the proteins whose structure has been solved at least in part.
• the scaffold protein can be screened to determine whether it can tolerate the integration of various binding sites without excessive denaturation.
• the integration of metal ion binding sites into the scaffold protein should not denature or unfold the protein.
• the metal ion binding site should not be placed by mutating a hydrophobic core or in a position that results in substantial structural perturbation. This can be examined by sequence alignment of proteins in the same family.
• the amino acids that have an essential role in folding of the structure or the function will be conserved among different species of this same type of the protein.
• the scaffold protein can be a natural protein that chelates a metal ion.
• metal ion binding sites are placed into a scaffold protein such that the metal is able to be tumbled together with the protein. It is better to find a location that is not as flexible as or is the same flexibility as the protein body so as to match the correction time. In this case, it is preferred to design or create the binding pocket in the protein. Although insertion also should work, it is preferable to do so in a relatively not so flexible region.
• the protein can be checked by looking at the B factor (temperature factor for X-ray) or S 2 factor (dynamic flexibility factor for NMR) of the pdb (protein data bank) file of the structure.
• More than one metal binding site may be integrated into a scaffold protein.
• the inclusion of more than one binding site improves the sensitivity of the contrast agent. Further, in cases where more than one binding site is integrated into the protein, the site could have different affinities but should still have strong enough affinity for the selected metal so to avoid competition with physiological metal ions. Both metal ions should be embedded into the host protein with preferred rotational correlation times and water exchange rates to provide MRI contrast with an increased sensitivity.
• the contrast agents can have a high affinity to and can preferentially select a particular metal ion (e.g. Gd 3+ , Mn 2+ or Fe 3+ ).
• exemplary contrast agents showed a dissociation constant K d less than 10 8 [M] for Gd 3+ in an environment having physiological metal ions and prevented those metal ions from precipitation under physiological conditions.
• the preseni invention may be used to create contrast agents having optimal selectivity for a specific metal ion.
• the present invention can provide a new mechanism to increase the relaxivity of contrast agents. This is accomplished by designing the metal ion binding sites, e.g.
• Gd 3+ in proteins, which can eliminate the mobility and flexibility of the chelating moiety associated with currently available contrast agents. More particularly, by tailoring the binding site, it is possible to prepare contrast agents with higher relaxivity. High proton relaxivity by contrast agents can further enhance images.
• One advantage of the present invention is that it provides contrast agents that can preferentially chelate a specific metal ion.
• a preferred contrast agent having Gd 3+ binding site(s) will preferentially chelate Gd 3+ over other metal ions, such Mg 2+ or Ca 2+ .
• metal ions such Mg 2+ or Ca 2+ .
• contrast agents that are able to form a stronger bond with the metal ion are less toxic.
• the ability to preferentially chelate a specific metal ion can improve the specificity of a contrast agent and can reduce the cytotoxicity of the contrast agent.
• a fusion protein or a non-degradable particle moiety can be added to the protein contrast agent with a linker to tune the correlation time for optimal contrast sensitivity, targeting (subcellular, cellular, tissue and organ selectivity), biodistribution, and bioelimination.
• a linker to tune the correlation time for optimal contrast sensitivity, targeting (subcellular, cellular, tissue and organ selectivity), biodistribution, and bioelimination.
• this invention can be used to produce microspheres of contrast agents of low density.
• These microspheres can have an internal void volume that can be at least about 75% of the total volume of the microsphere.
• the microspheres may be of varying size, provided they are low density. Suitable size microspheres include those ranging from between about 1 and about 1000 microns in outside diameter.
• the contrast agents of the present invention may be formulated with conventional pharmaceutical or veterinary mechanisms and materials.
• the contrast agent compositions of the present invention may be in conventional pharmaceutical administration forms such as powders, solutions, suspensions, dispersions, etc.; however, solutions, suspensions and dispersions in physiologically acceptable carrier media, for example water for injections, will generally be preferred.
• compositions according to the invention can therefore be formulated for administration using physiologically acceptable carriers or excipients in a manner fully within the skill of the art.
• the administration of the contrast agents of this invention can be done in a variety of ways, including, but not limited to, orally, subcutaneously, intravenously, intranasally, transdermal ⁇ , intraperitoneally, intramuscularly, intrapulmonary, vaginally, rectally, or intraocularly.
• the delivery mechanisms include parenteral administration (injection or infusion directly).
• the compounds may be formulated in a variety of ways.
• the concentration of active compound in the formulation may vary from about 0.01-100 wt. %.
• One of the bioelimination routes for the contrast agents of this invention can be renal.
• the macrostructure is eventually to be abstracted by the RES and it is preferred that chelate attachment should be via biodegradable bonds that on cleavage release fragments that are renally excretable, e.g. with a molecular weight of less than 60 KDa, preferably less than 10 KDa, especially 200 to 5000 Da.
• a fusion protein or a non-degradable particle moiety can be added to the protein contrast agent.
• the contrast agent can be modified for use with the specific organism by those with ordinary skill in the art.
• the contrast agent in used in rats, the contrast agent may be modified by incorporating the rat self sequence. Further, it is contemplated that the contrast agent could include human sequences.
• An additional advantage of the protein-based agent of the present invention is that it is relatively easy to target the specific tissues and biomarkers for molecular imaging of tissues and tissue growths such as cancer.
• the active targeting of contrast agents to specific organs or tissues can be achieved by incorporation of lipids with monoclonal antibodies or antibody fragments that are specific for tumor associated antigens, lectins or peptides attached thereto.
• Scaffold proteins suitable with the present invention include proteins or organic polymers containing amino acids.
• Such scaffold proteins are inclusive of both natural amino acids and unnatural amino acids (e.g. beta-alanine, phenylglycine, and homoarginine).
• amino acids are alpha-amino acids, which can be either of the L-optical isomer or the D-optical isomer, the D-optical isomers may be preferred, as such isomers are less subject to proteolytic degradation.
• Such amino acids can be commonly encountered amino acids that are not gene-encoded, although preferred amino acids are those that are encodable.
• scaffold proteins may be used according to the invention but in general they will be proteins, terminally modified proteins, and organic polymers. More specifically, suitable scaffold proteins can be selected with properties suitable for diagnostic applications.
• the scaffold protein for use with this invention may be of unitary construction (a particulate, a polychelant or a dendrimeric polymer). Scaffold proteins suitable with this invention may be selected without undue experimentation.
• the scaffold protein also can be a natural protein that ordinarily binds a metal ion. In such embodiments, it is possible to modify the natural metal binding sites to chelate heavy metals or paramagnetic metals or other metals useful in diagnostic imaging.
• the amino acid sequence of the scaffold protein that ordinarily binds Ca 2+ to bind Gd 3+ by modifying amino acid ligand residues contained therein.
• a scaffold protein can be selected for the following criteria:
• the molecular sizes are suitable for the particular application.
• An optimal size can be dependant on a particular diagnostic application.
• a compact structure e.g. molecular weights between 11-30 KDa, and rotational correlation times of -10-30 ns.
• a molecular size can improve circulation retention times and tissue penetration.
• stronger in vivo kidney images and prolonged retention time can allow for more detailed imaging of the renal system for diagnosing kidney diseases such as renal carcinoma and can allow for more precise measurement of blood flow and volume.
• a proper size of the protein frame can provide improved tissue penetration and molecular targeting, which can be a limitation of some the large size of dentrimers, nano-particles, and superparamagnetic particles.
• the scaffold protein also can have intrinsic properties, which can allow for the construction of multifunctional probes and use of fluorescence as a tool to assist in the design of MRI contrast agents for molecular imaging without the need of other fluorophores.
• Suitable proteins include proteins from immunoglobulin G (IgG) superfamily such as CD2 proteins (a cell adhesion protein) that exhibit high stability against proteolysis, thermal conditions (Tm 67 C), pH (2-10), and salt (0-4 M NaCI) denaturation.
• CD2 proteins can be suitable with this invention because such proteins are stable in physiological environments, have a topology suitable for the integration of at least one or multiple metal ion chelating sites, and typically have a relaxivity greater than 10 mM " V 1 (some of them up to about 50 mM " V 1 ).
• CD2 can tolerate multiple surface mutations without unfolding the protein.
• CD2 can be used as a host protein to design calcium binding sites. Examples using CD2 are described below.
• Fluorescent proteins are another class of preferred scaffold protein for this invention, as these proteins are stable in a physiological environment against proteolytic degradation and pH denaturation (pH 5- 10).
• Such fluorescent proteins include an array of fluorescent proteins including those related to Aequorea. Suitable fluorescent proteins should have a useful excitation and emission spectra and may have been engineered from naturally occurring Aequorea victoria green fluorescent proteins (GFPs).
• GFPs green fluorescent proteins
• modified GFPs may have modified nucleic acid and protein sequences and may include elements from other proteins.
• the cDNA of GFPs may be concatenated with those encoding many other proteins - the resulting chimerics are often fluorescent and retain the biochemical features of the partner proteins. Yellow fluorescent proteins and blue fluorescence proteins and red fluorescent proteins can also be used to as the scaffold proteins for contrast agents. Such proteins also are included in the invention.
• Suitable proteins include extra cellular receptors and growth factors are known to be stable against protein cleavage.
• proteins from four-helical bundle family such as Rop
• the maltose binding protein family and thioredoxin family have been shown to accept mutations and metal binding sites.
• Rop proteins from four-helical bundle family
• the maltose binding protein family and thioredoxin family have been shown to accept mutations and metal binding sites.
• the inventors have not tested every protein for suitability as a scaffold protein, the diverse array of examined proteins demonstrates this invention includes all of the proteins having the criteria disclosed herein. It is contemplated that one of ordinary skill in the art can develop and select a suitable scaffold protein based using ordinary research techniques and the criteria disclosed herein.
• One advantage of using fluorescent proteins is that contrast agents constructed from such proteins can be multi-functional probes.
• the contrast agent constructed from fluorescent proteins can be screened using both fluorescence and MR imaging. This can be extremely advantageous as such properties equip the contrast agent with both the fluorescence needed for fluorescence detection methods and the sensitivity needed for the deep tissue detection from MRI.
• Such contrast agents are multifunctional contrast agents.
• scaffold proteins may be used as scaffold proteins for this invention.
• scaffold proteins are able to tolerate the addition of the metal ion binding site without substantial disruption to its structure.
• One of ordinary skill in the art can select a scaffold protein based on preferences without undue experimentation.
• the affinity of the metal ion binding site may vary the contrast agent affinity for metal ions. Specifically, as affinity and sensitivity of the metal ion binding sites may be modified, the relaxivity and metal affinity of the contrast agent may be modified.
• the metal ion binding site has optimal imaging properties including metal binding affinity, selectivity, relaxivity, nuclear magnetic relaxation
• NMRD Dispersion
• the metal ion binding site of the present invention can be constructed at least using these methods: (1 ) A computational design approach in which the metal ion binding site with a selectivity and affinity for a metal ion is engineered and rationally designed de novo based on optimal binding characteristics of metal ion with other moieties;
• the computational design approach focuses on designing a metal ion binding site de novo. This design approach focuses on using an algorithm to construct and engineer an optimal binding site. Preferably, the computation design approach is used to create optimal binding sites by, e.g., varying the coordination geometry of the site, the water number in the coordination shells, the ligand types, and the charges.
• the computational design approach comprises the following steps:
• the metal ion binding site may be incorporated into a scaffold protein, e.g. a fluorescent or CD2 protein. Further, such a method may be used to alter metal ion binding properties of proteins and generate new materials with various ion binding affinities.
• a scaffold protein e.g. a fluorescent or CD2 protein.
• the method involves searching and accessing public and or private databases for preferred components of a metal ion binding site.
• databases that may be searched for the criteria or components may include public domain banks (e.g. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NBCI) or PubMed of the US National Institution of Health) or knowledge banks such as protein modeling structure data banks (e.g. Cambridge or RCSB Protein Data Bank Data Bank and BioMagResBank database) or other biotechnological data banks.
• the database could include structural data from metal ion binding proteins whose structures have been characterized previously.
• One of ordinary skill in the art can identify databases and sources of material for databases suitable with this invention. Use of a computer with internet or intranet capabilities obviously would greatly speed up the searching and is preferred.
• These databases may be used to provide structural analysis of one to several thousand different small molecules or metal ions that bind to a protein.
• Such analysis may include local coordination properties, types of residues or atoms commonly used to bind a desired metal ion, chemical features (e.g. pKa or changes), the number of charged residues on a site, and the range or deviation of the known binding sites.
• Further, such analysis may include the environment, such as types of atoms, residues, hydrophobicity, solvent accessibility, shapes of the metal binding sites, electrostatic potentials, and the dynamic properties (e.g. B- factors or the order factors of the proteins) of the binding sites.
• Such analysis also may include whether binding site for a particular metal ion is a continuous or discontinuous binding site.
• one or more suitable metal ion binding sites may be generated based on rational factors.
• different search algorithms may be used to generate potential metal ion binding sites based on other key features in addition to, for example, the geometric descriptors. These key features include the properties of the original residues in the scaffold protein, ligand positions that are essential to protein folding, the number of the charged residues and their arrangement and number of water molecules in the coordination shell. The hydrogen bond network and the electrostatic interactions with the designed ligand residues also can be evaluated.
• the protein environments of metal ion binding sites can be analyzed according to solvent accessibility, charge distribution, backbone flexibility, and properties of scaffold proteins. Thus, one of ordinary skill in the art may rationally select a binding site based on desired parameters.
• a site may be tailored using two complementary approaches of computational design and grafting (see below).
• the computational design approach includes modifying the metal ion binding site by modifying residues in the scaffold of the metal ion binding site.
• a geometric or statistical description of the ligands around a metal ion, a three-dimensional structure of the backbone of proteins, and a library of side-chain rotamers of amino acids (or atoms from the main chain) can identify a set of potential metal-binding sites using a computer.
• key ligand residues are carefully placed in the amino acid sequence to form the metal (metal ion) binding pocket. This binding pocket can be created automatically by a computer algorithm designed according to the coordination description and the user's preferred affinity.
• the created potential metal ion binding sites can be optimized and tuned to specification.
• a backbone structure of the metal ion binding site with different degrees of flexibility may be used according to the need or the flexibility of the metal ion binding site.
• the designed metal ion binding sites are further filtered and scored based on the local factors, which may include the shape of the metal ion binding sites, locations, charge numbers, dynamic properties, the number of mutations needed, solvent accessibility, and side chain clashes. To achieve the maximum relaxivity, it can be important to have one to two oxygen atoms from the solvent water molecules in the coordination shell without reducing the required binding affinity and selectivity.
• Stronger metal ion binding affinities of the designed sites may be developed based on several modeled factors that contribute to metal ion affinity.
• the number of ligand residues is a factor to directly chelate a specific metal ion.
• the number of ligand residues is a factor to directly chelate a specific metal ion.
• the number of charged residues is able to change metal ion affinity.
• the ligand type is a factor as the binding preferences of a chelate may depend on the particular ligand type.
• An illustrative version of this computational approach is the computerized (or otherwise automated) querying of one or more databases that comprise structural data on metal ion binding sites using selected criteria relevant to the metal ion binding site, generating at least one preliminary metal ion binding site from the database information based on compatibility with the selected criteria, and selecting one or more suitable metal ion binding sites from the preliminary metal ion binding sites based on optimal compatibility with the selected criteria.
• the nucleic acid sequence of the selected metal ion binding site is obtained, tailored, and operatively linked with a scaffold protein sequence, whereby the nucleic acid sequence of the selected metal ion binding site is tailored so to achieve the metal ion binding site having a desired specificity for the metal ion.
• a nucleic acid sequence encoding the preliminary binding sites can be generated from the structural or model data. The computational approach also can be used to produce the metal ion binding site.
• the computational approach can be performed on or by a system comprising at least one database that comprises the structural data on metal ion binding sites, an algorithm for generating the preliminary metal ion binding sites from portions of the structural or model data using selected criteria relevant to the metal ion binding site and rating the preliminary metal ion binding sites based on specificity for a selected metal ion, and a computer for executing the algorithm so as to query the databases to generate the preliminary metal ion binding sites.
• the algorithm generally is a relatively simple searching algorithm that will query the databases based on inputted criteria.
• the grafting method focuses on engineering and constructing a metal ion binding site by modifying the primary, secondary, tertiary, and/or quaternary structure of an identified binding site. By selectively manipulating the structure of the binding site, it is possible to obtain a metal ion binding site that can be engineered into a scaffold protein, e.g. CD2 or fluorescent protein, without significantly denaturing the protein. Using the grafting method, it is possible to achieve a binding site that has a stronger preference for one metal ion over another metal ion. Such modifications may allow for improved contrast abilities.
• a scaffold protein e.g. CD2 or fluorescent protein
• an identified binding site for use with the grafting method may be any continuous sequence site that has some affinity for a metal ion.
• binding sites may derive from either known binding peptides such as an individual EF-hand site oi from short fragments that have demonstrated the ability to bind specific metal ions such as alpha-lactalbumin.
• Such peptides may be highly conserved in nature and prevalent throughout nature or may be unnatural but known to have an affinity for a particular metal ion.
• One of ordinary skill in the art is able to identify binding sites with affinity for a metal ion without undue experimentation. Once the binding site has been identified, the primary structure of the metal ion binding site may be altere ⁇ and tuned to achieve a metal ion binding site with improved binding characteristics.
• more charged ligand residues such aspartate and glutamate may be engineered by inserting codon(s) into the metal ion binding site so as to tune the responsiveness of the site or the scaffold protein.
• the inclusion of additional charged ligands can allow the contrast agent to achieve an affinity for selected paramagnetic metal ions and to have a desired selectivity.
• one or two water molecules can also be introduced into the coordination shell by removing or modifying ligand residues and their environments.
• other mutations to the primary structure include removing or adding amino acids to change properties such as flexibility or rigidity of the site. Adding or removing amino acids from the binding site alters the primary structure of the binding site.
• the secondary structure of the metal ion binding site may be modified to tune the sensitivity and responsiveness of the metal ion binding site.
• the residues on the site itself, the flanking or the neighboring structures such as helices, beta strands, or turns may be modified by changing properties such as hydrophobicity, salt bridges, secondary structure propensity (e.g. helicity, and ⁇ - sheets), and charge interactions with different amino acids, which all may inherently change the secondary structure.
• the tertiary structure of the metal ion binding site may be modified to further tune the sensitivity and responsiveness of the metal ion binding site.
• the affinity of the metal ion binding site for the metal ion may be varied by selectively manipulatinc and adding helices, loops, bridges and/or linkers and chemical properties such as hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions and hydrophobic interactions.
• variations in tertiary structure may add stability and affinity by increasing secondary structure propensity, adding charge interaction of the side chains, and b ⁇ stabilizing the metal ion binding coordination chemistry.
• the dynamic propertie can be modified by increasing the packing of the protein and replacing residues wit! T/US2006/027327
• One method of directly altering the primary, secondary, and/or tertiary structure of the metal ion binding site is by altering the charges in the site.
• the charges in any binding site have a significant role in the structure of the site, changing the charges or charge ratio may have significant impact on the structure of the site.
• the charged side chains exhibit a strong influence on the metal ion binding affinity even though they are not directly involved as ligands, the variation of these chains results in variations in metal ion binding affinities and selectivity.
• a metal ion binding site may have stronger affinities to and better selectivity for a desired metal ion over a competitive metal ion by designing or modifying the site, e.g., changing the number of charged ligand residues to form metal ion binding pockets.
• the metal ion binding affinity of the metal ion binding site may be varied by changing the charged side chains that are present on the metal ion binding site and or the neighboring environment. The replacement of charged residues such as aspartate or glutamate with a residue such as alanine may dramatically reduce the binding affinity for the metal ion by up to 100 times.
• the contrast agent is a fluorescent protein
• metal binding sites can be added at remote locations away from the chromophore or simple fusion to the fluorescent moieties. Such locations can be evident from the sequence and protein folding.
• the grafting approach may be used with the design approach to create optimal metal binding sites.
• metal binding sites can be created by using part of a continuous binding site and part of ligand residues created by computer design.
• the loops or any sequences of the proteins can be removed or modified to achieve optimal required binding affinity, metal selectivity, relaxivity and stability.
• the metal ion chelating or binding can be developed using methods known or developed hereafter. Such methods include protein engineering methods that are readily available in the art, which include by modifying the existing metal binding sites to change the metal binding specificity and dynamic properties. Such methods also include techniques to modify existing binding sites with protein ligand residues or fuse to protein-contrast agents with other molecules, which include the formation of metal binding sites with other molecules/prosthetic groups including non-natural amino acids or carbohydrates or phosphates. Exemplary methods for protein engineering or for design suitable methods are also disclosed in Barondeau DP.
• the metal ion binding sites may be selectively introduced into numerous sites of a scaffold protein without substantially impairing its secondary structure.
• a number of methods for identifying integration sites in proteins, such CD2 proteins, fluorescent proteins (e.g. GFP, YFP, CFP, and RFP) are known in the art, including, for example, site directed mutagenesis, insertional mutagenesis, and deletional mutagenesis. Other methods, including the one exemplified below and in the Examples, are known or easily ascertained by one skilled in art.
• the sites of the fluorescent protein that can tolerate the insertion of a metal ion binding site also may be determined and identified by gene manipulation and screening.
• mutant proteins By generating mutant proteins and by manipulating the DNA sequence, it is possible to obtain a variety of different insertions, which then may be screened to determine whether the protein maintains its intrinsic activities.
• sites that remove or interfere with the intrinsic fluorescence of the fluorescent protein are not optimal and may be screened out. Variants identified in this fashion reveal sites that can tolerate insertions while retaining fluorescence.
• the preferred metal ion binding sites for use with scaffold proteins may be selected by considering five criteria so to as optimize the local properties of the metal binding site, the fluorescent protein, and the protein environment.
• Third, the water coordination shell of the metal ion chelating sites should be able to coordinate at least 1-2 water molecules.
• the residues from the loops between the secondary structures with good solvent accessibility are desired for both the folding of the protein and the fast kinetics required for the contrast agent.
• the mutation or the introduction of the metal ion binding site should not substantially interfere with the synthesis and folding of the protein.
• the introduction of the metal ion binding site should not interfere with either post- translational chromophore formation or intermolecular interactions required for stabilizing the chromophores and folding of the protein frame.
• the introduced side chain should not be overpacked and should not clash with the protein frame of the scaffold protein (e.g. the fluorescent protein).
• the direct use of chromophore residues as chelating sites is not preferred but is within the scope of this invention.
• Metal ions are atoms and ions, including the respective isotopes and radioisotopes, that can bind to proteins or peptides.
• a metal ion may bind reversibly or irreversibly and such a bond may be covalent or non-covalent.
• Gd 3+ is used in preferred embodiments of this invention as an exemplary metal ion for MRI contrast agents, it is understood that metal ions suitable with this invention include, but are not limited to metal ions including paramagnetic metal ions, transition metal ions, and Lanthanide Series ions.
• Exemplary metal ions include, but are not limited to, the ion, isotope, and/or radioisotope forms of magnesium, calcium, scandium, titanium, manganese, iron, boron, chromium, cobalt, nickel, cooper, zinc, gallium, strontium, yttrium, strontium, technetium, ruthenium, indium, hafnium, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, and bismuth. It is also possible to use radioisotopes of metals with this invention. Paramagnetic metal ions are the preferred metal ions for use with this invention.
• the metal ions chosen to be chelated by the contrast agents depend in part on the diagnostic role of the ion.
• Metals that can be incorporated, e.g. through chelation include lanthanides and other metal ions, including isotopes and radioisotopes thereof.
• the preferred metal ion is paramagnetic metal ion such as gadolinium.
• One of ordinary skill in the art can select a metal ion for chelation, based on the intended diagnostic application, without undue experimentation.
• the choice of metal ions to be held in chelate complexes by the contrast agents of the invention depends upon the diagnostic technique for which the agent is to be used.
• the metal ions should be paramagnetic (metal ions with unpaired electrons), and preferably nonradioactive.
• heavy metal ions e.g. with atomic numbers of at least 37, preferably at least 50, should be used, again preferably nonradioactive species.
• the metal ions should be ions of radioactive isotopes.
• chelating groups to bind to heavy metal clusters (e.g. polyoxoanions and full or partial sulfur analogues) or to iron oxides or other superparamagnetic polyatomic species.
• Metal may be incorporated into contrast agent, i.e. the tailored binding sites, by direct incorporation, template synthesis, and transmetallation.
• the metal ion is chelated into the contrast by direct incorporation, which involves titration with solution of sub-stoichiometric levels up to full incorporation.
• domain 1 of the cell adhesion protein CD2 and the green fluorescent protein were selected as scaffold proteins (e.g. FIGs. 1A and 1B) for the integration of engineered various metal (e.g. Gd 3+ ) binding sites for several reasons.
• FIG. 1A shows a 3D structure of CD2 with designed metal binding site.
• the loops that undergo relatively large dynamic property changes are shown in orange. Only one residue is labeled when continuous residues are colored.
• these proteins exhibit strong stability in terms of resistance to pH denaturation and resistance to proteolytic cleavage.
• the prior art has shown that GFP is extremely stable and cannot be cleaved by proteases such as trypsin, chymotrypsin and thrombin.
• proteases such as trypsin, chymotrypsin and thrombin.
• domain 1 of CD2 maintains its native conformation between pH 2 to 11.
• various structural information about CD2 and GFP is available, which allows for the rational design of metal binding sites with optimized inner, secondary and outer sphere relaxation and metal binding properties.
• these proteins have a compact structure, molecular weights between 11-30 KDa, and rotational correlation times of -10-30 ns. These proteins have been matched to the optimal relaxivity for the current clinically allowed magnetic field strength. Fifth, the molecular sizes are suitable for good circulation and tissue penetration.
• FIG. 2 shows an example of this methodology in which several Gd 3+ binding sites were designed at different locations of CD2.
• Gd 3+ , Tb 3+ , La 3+ and the other lanthanide metal ions have coordination properties similar to those of Ca 2+ .
• ⁇ R refers to the rotational correlation time of the molecule, k ex to the water/proton exchange rate or the reciprocal of residence lifetime of the coordinated water TM and 1/Ti, 2e to the relaxation rate of Gd 3+ electron spin. All have a strong preference for oxygen atoms from carboxyl sidechains of Asp, GIu, Asn, and GIn. Small chelators chelates usually have 8 and 7 coordinating oxygen atoms for Gd 3+ and Ca 2+ , respectively. For macromolecules such as proteins, the coordination numbers are slightly smaller possibly due to steric crowding effect.
• the average values for Gd 3+ and Ca 2+ are 7.2 and 6.5, respectively.
• the pentagonal bipyramidal geometry and potential metal binding ligand residues were used in creating metal binding site in CD2 with computer algorithm based on parameters selected by the inventor. As Gd 3+ is highly positively charged, more negatively charged residues were placed in the coordination shell to increase the affinity for Gd 3+ over Ca 2+ .
• CA1.CD2 the metal binding ligand residues are from different locations of the protein to form a metal binding pocket (discontinuous) while CA9.CD2 (see below) contains a the metal bind site formed by a continuous EF-hand loop from calmodulin linked by a flexible glycine linker. This site is designed to mimic previously reported highly flexible contrast agent conjugated to macromoiecule and to test our hypothesis.
• amino acid sequences of exemplary contrast are shown in Sequence Id. Nos. 1 through 19, shown in FIGs. 7-25, respectively.
• the computation method can be used to designed metal binding sites into scaffold proteins.
• previously published research by the inventor described established parameters such as the pentagonal bipyramidal geometry of the most popular Ca 2+ binding sites with potential ligand residues such as the carboxyl groups of D, N, E, Q and/or mainchain carbonyl oxygen atoms.
• the resulting protein preferentially binds Ca 2+ over Mg 2+ (10 mM) and K + (150 mM) at physiological conditions.
• These experiments resulted in metalloprotein designs that have a high coordination number (seven) metal binding site constructed into a ⁇ -sheet protein.
• Gd 3+ and Ca 2+ share similar coordination geometry and properties.
• Gd 3+ binding sites into proteins, the inventors started by carrying out detailed structural analysis of Gd 3+ binding sites in small chelators and proteins. As shown in FIGs. 1A, 1B and 1C (CD2 derivative), the inventors have solved the NMR structure for one of the designed metal binding proteins. Structural studies revealed that the coordination geometry in the designed proteins is the same as the designed structure. The structural profiles can assist in further designing of Gd 3+ binding proteins. Gd 3+ binding proteins also can be designed using developed computational methods. Gd 3+ binding proteins can be designed with knowledge about Ca 2+ -binding proteins
• Gd 3+ binding proteins can be designed using developed computational methods. Since Gd 3+ has a high number of positive charges, more charged residues in the coordination shell increased the selectivity for Gd 3+ over Ca 2+ . To systematically evaluate the key factors for the metal selectivity, CD2 variants were created with different numbers of charged ligand residues (2 to 5) in the metal coordination shell. Metal-binding sites with a higher number of negatively charged residues have stronger affinities for Gd 3+ and Tb 3+ over calcium. The resulting protein selectively binds Gd 3+ over Ca 2+ at physiological conditions with K d values for Gd 3+ and Tb 3+ ⁇ 0.01 ⁇ M and for calcium > 50 ⁇ M.
• the inventors have designed Gd 3+ binding sites in GFP in a pentagonal bipyramidal geometry with seven ligands using established computer algorithms. Several of the designed sites at different locations in GFP are shown in FIG. 1 C. GFP variants with designed metal binding sites exhibit strong metal binding affinity for the Gd 3+ analog Tb 3+ . This demonstrates that a general method for designing metal binding sites has been developed.
• Tb 3+ has an ionic size similar to Gd 3+
• FRET fluorescence resonance energy transfer
• the toxicity (negligible or low) of a metal-loaded contrast agent is a prerequisite as free Gd 3+ is toxic.
• the contrast agent should be thermodynamically and kinetically stable, e.g. with high binding affinity and very low off-rate, which can minimize the release of free toxic Gd 3+ .
• a contrast agent with high relaxivity and the capability to target specific tissues or organs dramatically reduces its required concentration for imaging and toxicity.
• a Gd 3+ -loaded contrast agent does not compete with the proteins for metal binding.
• CD2 with grafted EF-loop III modified from calmodulin (CA9.CD2) is similar in relaxivity to DTPA, possibly due to the intrinsic mobility of the metal binding site.
• FIG. 3A shows the sample order from top row left to right, then second row, left to right, then third row left to right is: 1) dH2O, 2) Tris, 3) Gd-DTPA in H 2 O, 0.10 mM Gd 3+ , 4) Gd-DTPA in Tris, 0.10 mM Gd 3+ , 5) 0.092 mM Gd 3+ -w.t.CD2, 6) 0.077 mM Gd 3+ -CA4.CD2, 7) 0.10 mM Gd 3+ -CA2.6D31 , 8) 0.10 mM Gd 3+ - CA9.CD2, 9) 0.020 mM Gd 3+ -CAI .CD2-GST, and 10) 0.050 mM Gd 3+ - CA1.CD2.
• FIG. 3B shows MR images produced using Spin-echo sequence, TR 6000ms, Tl 960ms, TE 7.6ms at 3T.
• FIG. 4A shows the dynamic properties of two engineered metal binding proteins.
• FIG. 4B shows the order factors of CA1-CD2 with discontinuous ligand residues that have the same dynamic properties as the scaffold protein.
• the metal binding site has significantly higher flexibility than the scaffold protein due to the flexible linkers.
• the overall correlation time of the designed metal binding protein is 9.2 ns, consistent with proteins of similar size.
• the order factor S 2 of the ligand residues is similar to that of the average value of the protein, suggesting that the metal binding pocket tumbles as a whole with the protein. Therefore, the measured correlation time of the protein directly reflects the TR of the metal binding site.
• CD2 with the grafted EF-loop III of calmodulin appears to be more flexible than the host protein.
• the serum stability of designed proteins were studied by incubating the designed proteins that complex with equal molar of GdCI 3 with human serum.
• the relaxivities of exemplary contrast agents remained intact in the presence of human serum and were not significantly affected in the presence of 100 fold excess Ca 2+ . Further, these designed contrast agents remained intact after incubation in human serum for greater 48 hours.
• Gd 3+ is expected to have one or two more coordinated oxygen ligands than Ca 2+ . It has been shown that designed metal binding sites with pentagonal bipyramidal geometry and four to five negatively charged ligand residues are able to bind Gd 3+ strongly and with good selectivity to Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ . To test whether increasing ligand atoms can increase metal binding affinity and selectivity, the metal binding sites in the scaffold proteins can be designed by varying the coordination geometries with a total of 6 to 8 ligand residues as shown in Table 2.
• Vary water number q in the coordination shell Increasing the number of water molecules in the coordination shell increases the relaxivity while the metal binding affinity and selectivity might be compromised.
• Metal binding sites with one to three hydrated water oxygen atoms in the coordination shells with total coordination numbers of 7-9 have been designed (Table 3) to test if the maximum proton relaxivity can be achieved with two coordination water atoms without trading the metal binding affinity and selectivity.
• Vary ligand types and number of charged ligand residues As Gd 3+ prefers more negatively charged ligands than Ca 2+ , a total of 2 to 6 negatively charged ligand residues are designed by varying the number of Asp or GIu as ligand residues as shown in FIG. 3 for site 7E15. Enriched negative charges are expected to enhance the Gd 3+ -binding affinity and stability. It may also increase the relaxivity by facilitating the inner-outer water exchange.
• Vary the locations of metal binding sites A good choice of metal binding site locations is essential not only for the protein folding and stability, but also for the proton relaxivity due to the effect of protein environment on the secondary and outer sphere water exchange properties. Table 3 lists the designed metal binding sites at different locations of CD2.
• CD2-6D15 (CA4.CD2) N15D, N17D N60, D62
• CD2-7E15 (CA1.CD2) N15E, L58E, K64D , E56 , D62
• CD2-6D79 (CA3.CD2) A92E, T79D, N77, E33, N90
• metal binding site e.g. CA1.CD27E15
• metal binding site is formed by two residues in the beta strand B and three ligand residues from the loop regions while all of the protein ligand residues of 6D79 are from the beta strands.
• Vary the number of Gd 3+ binding sites As the quality of MR imaging is related to the relaxivity and concentration of the contrast agents, multiple sites will be engineered in a single polypeptide chain with the aim of increasing the local Gd 3+ concentration without changing the protein concentration.
• the designed Gd 3+ - binding sites using non-overlapped ligands can be tested individually first and then engineered into a single protein.
• CD2 For example, it is possible to create a CD2 with all three Gd 3+ binding sites of 7E15 (CA1.CD2), 6D79 (CA2.CD2), and 6D31 (CA2.CD2). Similar approaches are used for GFP. Additional metal binding sites can be created by linking the tandem repeats of CD2 and GFP with multiple metal binding sites. As shown in FIG. 1 E, multifunctional contrast agents with high payload can be created as CD2-GFP fusion proteins with multiple Gd 3+ binding sites.
• the size of the developed protein has several effects on the properties of the contrast agents. According to the present invention and as pointed out by Lauffer, the correlation time to achieve optimal relaxivity under current clinical magnetic field strength is 10-50 ns, which correlates to the protein with compact structure of 10-30 KDa. Proteins with different domains might have additional internal motions between domains. In addition, the biodistribution and circulation of contrast agents are also dependent on the size of proteins. It is known that proteins with molecular weights in the region of 10-60 KDa have been shown to be ideal for molecular recognition and fast blood diffusion and excretion via the kidney.
• the inventors have designed metal binding sites in proteins such as domain 1 of CD2 (11 KDa), CD2-CD2 tandem fusion proteins, GFP (28 KDa), CD2-GST fusion protein (38 KDa), CD2 and GFP fusion proteins (40 KDa) with different molecular weights.
• proteins such as domain 1 of CD2 (11 KDa), CD2-CD2 tandem fusion proteins, GFP (28 KDa), CD2-GST fusion protein (38 KDa), CD2 and GFP fusion proteins (40 KDa) with different molecular weights.
• These designs allow the development of contrast agents with high relaxivity optimized to the magnetic field strength, and biodistribution and bioelimination.
• Gd 3+ binding sites embedded into stable proteins eliminate the high internal mobility of the paramagnetic moiety and optimal total correlation time and water exchange rates.
• tandem repeats of CD2 and GFP containing multiple metal binding sites achieve high payload agents with extremely high sensitivity and reduce the use of the amount of contrast agents and hence significantly reduce the
• Multi-functional contrast agents with both the capability for MR imaging and fluorescence optical imaging have been created. See, e.g. FlG. 1 D. Fluorescence imaging can be utilized due to its characteristic high sensitivity. See, e.g., Sequence Id. Nos. 16 through 19. Proteins with both paramagnetic binding sites and fluorescence properties have been generated by designing Gd 3+ binding sites directly in GFP. Studies allow a direct comparison of the results from scintillography and PET, providing spatial information for the cause of the cancer and the progress of the treatment.
• Toxicity Briefly, testing cells (1x10 4 cells/well in 100 ⁇ l medium) were incubated with designed proteins with/without Gd 3+ (up to 50 ⁇ M) for 48 hours. The cell viability was analyzed by MTT assay. No toxicity was observed in any of the tested cells treated with an exemplary contrast agent (e.g. CA1.CD2) with concentrations up to 50 ⁇ M. For example, as shown in FIG. 6, no toxicity was observed in all tested cells treated with designed proteins with concentrations up to 50 ⁇ M.
• an exemplary contrast agent e.g. CA1.CD2

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