CN111273361A - Earthquake monitoring table net special for coal mine - Google Patents
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Abstract
A special earthquake monitoring station network for coal mines comprises a ground monitoring device, an underground monitoring device, a GPS antenna, an NTP/PTP time synchronization server, a power supply, a ground monitoring server and a data processing computer; the ground monitoring device comprises a ground seismic data collector and a ground seismic sensor, and the underground monitoring device comprises an underground seismic data collector and an underground seismic sensor; the underground and ground seismic data acquisition devices are used for time service through a GPS antenna or an NTP/PTP time synchronization server connected with the underground and ground seismic data acquisition devices; the ground monitoring device and the underground monitoring device form a ground and underground special earthquake three-dimensional monitoring table network, the ground and underground combined arrangement mode is adopted, the earthquake source positioning precision is improved, the real-time online monitoring is carried out on the earthquake phenomenon in the mining area range, and the earthquake source distribution and the earthquake change trend are visually displayed.
Description
Technical Field
The invention relates to coal mine earthquake and rock burst monitoring, in particular to a special earthquake monitoring table network for a coal mine, and belongs to the technical field of mine safety and earthquake monitoring.
Background
Almost all major coal mining countries in the world are threatened by rock burst to varying degrees. The first coal mine rock burst phenomenon was reported in 1783 in the united kingdom worldwide. Since then, rock burst occurs in several dozen countries and regions such as the former soviet union, south africa, germany, united states, canada, india, and uk.
In China, rock burst occurs in the smoothing coal mine earlier than 1933. Later, with the increase of mining depth and the continuous expansion of mining range, rock burst phenomena occur in many mines in mine areas such as Beijing, Fushun, Shandong, Henan, Shanxi and the like. With the continuous increase of the mining depth, the rock burst disaster is more and more prominent, and the harm to the coal mine safety production is more and more large. Research shows that the dynamic disaster problem of coal mines such as rock burst and mine earthquake and the dynamic disaster instability problem of rock engineering are the results of instability of rock fracture processes such as initiation, development and penetration of micro fractures induced by stress field disturbance in the engineering activity process. Therefore, regardless of the kind of dynamic disaster of rock, there is mostly a precursor of micro-fracturing before the dynamic disaster occurs, and the direct cause of inducing micro-fracturing activity is an increase in stress or strain in the rock formation.
The scientific prediction and forecast of mine vibration is always the aim of cumin of students in various countries. Research in this area has made significant progress in recent years. At present, microseismic monitoring systems adopted in China mainly comprise the SOS, ARAMIS and ESG of Canada in Poland and KJ551 in China, and geophone monitoring systems mainly comprise the SAK, ARES-5/E and the like in Poland. The microseismic monitoring frequency band is generally 5-200 Hz, and the ground sound monitoring frequency band is 60-2000 Hz.
Because the impact mechanism, the precursor information and the vibration parameters are different at different stages, only one frequency band vibration monitoring device is equipped or the vibration monitoring data of a plurality of frequency bands are not subjected to seamless butt joint, so that an ideal monitoring effect is difficult to obtain. At present, mine vibration is mostly monitored by micro-vibration and earthquake sound, and seismic monitoring can realize lower-frequency, wider-area and more sensitive signal capture, so that the method has important significance for mine vibration monitoring.
Disclosure of Invention
The earthquake monitoring network special for the coal mine comprises a ground monitoring device, an underground monitoring device, a GPS antenna, an NTP/PTP time synchronization server, a power supply, a ground monitoring server and a data processing computer; the ground monitoring device comprises a ground seismic data collector and a ground seismic sensor, and the underground monitoring device comprises an underground seismic data collector and an underground seismic sensor; the underground seismic sensors are connected in parallel and are connected with an underground seismic data acquisition unit; the ground seismic sensors are connected in parallel and are connected with a ground seismic data acquisition unit; the underground and ground seismic data acquisition devices are used for time service through a GPS antenna or an NTP/PTP time synchronization server connected with the underground and ground seismic data acquisition devices; the underground and ground seismic data acquisition units are connected with a ground monitoring server and a data processing computer, and the data processing computer is provided with a station network real-time receiving software, a station network operation monitoring software, a station network data analysis software and a station network calibration processing software; the ground monitoring device and the underground monitoring device form a ground and underground special earthquake three-dimensional monitoring table network, the ground and underground combined arrangement mode is adopted, the earthquake source positioning precision is improved, the real-time online monitoring is carried out on the earthquake phenomenon in the mining area range, and the earthquake source distribution and the earthquake change trend are visually displayed.
The ground seismic sensor adopts a common seismometer, the underground seismic sensor is an explosion-proof type seismometer which accords with the coal mine safety standard, the seismometer adopts a three-component integrated electronic feedback mode, the seismometer is formed by integrally mounting three independent component velocity sensors (1 vertical UD, 1 east-west EW and 1 north-south NS), and the feedback structure expands the folding pendulum length of the seismometer through electronic feedback, so that the aim of prolonging the equivalent working period of the seismometer is fulfilled. The sensitivity of the sensor reaches 2000Vs/m, the dynamic range is better than 120dB, the observation frequency band of the short-period seismometer is 1S-50 Hz, the observation frequency band of the broadband seismometer is 60S-50 Hz, and the sensor is suitable for being installed under different ground and underground environments.
The ground seismic data acquisition unit and the underground seismic data acquisition unit are provided with high-speed analog signal input channels and can be connected with a three-component seismometer; by adopting GPS synchronous time service, on one hand, GPS clock signals output by the IRIG-B code generator can be received through optical fibers, and real-time data service is provided through the optical fibers, on the other hand, the whole system is subjected to network time service through the NTP/PTP time synchronization server, and the collector is internally provided with the NTP/PTP time service function to provide the real-time data function.
The seismic sensors and the seismic data collectors are respectively arranged on the ground and the underground to form a ground and underground special seismic three-dimensional monitoring table network, the ground and underground combined arrangement mode is adopted, the seismic source positioning precision is obviously improved, particularly, the vertical positioning depth has obvious advantages, the real-time online monitoring can be carried out on seismic phenomena such as earthquakes, mine earthquakes, micro-earthquakes and the like in a mining area range, and the seismic source distribution and the seismic variation trend are visually displayed.
The ground time service adopts GPS antenna and data acquisition unit cable conductor directly to link, and the GPS antenna of each ground station is independent, and signal reception is stable, and synchronous precision is high. The underground station data collector is internally provided with an NTP/PTP time service function, on one hand, each underground data collector is time-served through an optical cable through a ground time-service GPS antenna, the time-service precision is high, and the synchronous error is less than 10 mu s, on the other hand, the time-service is carried out through an NTP/PTP time synchronization server network, the ground GPS antenna receives time-service information, the underground data collector is time-served through the NTP/PTP time synchronization server connected in the network, and the time-service synchronous error is less than 1 ms.
The earthquake monitoring station network special for the coal mine comprises real-time receiving software, operation monitoring software, data analysis software and calibration processing software. Real-time receiving software, real-time receiving station network data, real-time displaying waveform, real-time monitoring of circuit on-off and real-time data storage; running monitoring software, monitoring the working state of the station network data processing software, and dynamically displaying the earthquake positioning result; data analysisThe software realizes earthquake waveform data man-machine interaction processing, earthquake phase identification, earthquake positioning and waveform file format conversion; and the calibration processing software is used for calculating pulse calibration and sine calibration, calculating a transfer function and detecting the working state of the seismometer. The seismic positioning method adopts grid positioning, and the grid positioning is carried out by using an objective function minimum search method, namely, a grid m (m) is searched in a full space range1,m2,m3). Different objective functions are established. Firstly, when the seismic source has the first arrival P wave and the second arrival S wave, according to the principle of the least square method, if the earthquake occurs at the position, the sum of the squares of the residual errors of the calculated travel time and the actual observed travel time of the seismic waves arriving at each station is minimum, and the seismic source position can be considered. Secondly, when only the first arrival P wave exists, according to the concept of equal time difference (EDT) surface, namely: t isi-Tj＝ti(m1,m2,m3)-tj(m1,m2,m3) (ii) a That is to say the time T of a certain earthquake reaching the station i and ji、TjDifference sum grid (seismic source) (m)1,m2,m3) Theoretical travel time t to reach the two stationsi(m1,m2,m3)、tj(m1,m2,m3) The difference is equal. According to the least squares principle, this grid is the seismic source when the sum of the squared residuals of the difference between observed time and the difference between theoretical travel time is minimal.
The system adopts seismic duration magnitude MDThe magnitude of the vibration is calculated, the magnitude of the vibration is measured by recording the duration of the vibration, the magnitude of the vibration can better meet the actual situation than the magnitude of the vibration is measured by using the maximum amplitude, the duration tau is generally defined from the initial motion of the P wave, the time until the double amplitude of the wake wave is attenuated to 2 millimeters is traced backwards, and the wake wave more than 2 millimeters does not appear in 10 seconds later.
Description of the drawings:
in order to more clearly explain the technical solution of the present invention, the following description will be made of the necessary design details in the solution by means of schematic diagrams or schematic diagrams:
three-direction integrated structure of seismometer in figure 1
FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a feedback type
FIG. 3 is a block diagram of the working principle of the seismometer
FIG. 4 shows a structure diagram of a seismic monitoring network dedicated for coal mine
The specific implementation mode is as follows:
as shown in fig. 4, the earthquake monitoring network dedicated for coal mine comprises a ground monitoring device, an underground monitoring device, a GPS antenna, an NTP/PTP time synchronization server, a power supply, a ground monitoring server, and a data processing computer; the ground monitoring device comprises a ground seismic data collector and a ground seismic sensor, and the underground monitoring device comprises an underground seismic data collector and an underground seismic sensor; the underground seismic sensors are connected in parallel and are connected with an underground seismic data acquisition unit; the ground seismic sensors are connected in parallel and are connected with a ground seismic data acquisition unit; the underground and ground seismic data acquisition devices are used for time service through a GPS antenna or an NTP/PTP time synchronization server connected with the underground and ground seismic data acquisition devices; the underground and ground seismic data acquisition unit is connected with a ground monitoring server and a data processing computer, and the data processing computer is provided with a station network real-time receiving software, a station network operation monitoring software, a station network data analysis software and a station network calibration processing software.
The ground monitoring device and the underground monitoring device form a ground and underground special earthquake three-dimensional monitoring table network, the ground and underground combined arrangement mode is adopted, the earthquake source positioning precision is improved, the real-time online monitoring is carried out on the earthquake phenomenon in the mining area range, and the earthquake source distribution and the earthquake change trend are visually displayed.
The whole earthquake sensor adopts a three-direction integrated structure, and the sensitive axis directions of EW, NS and UD are pairwise orthogonal, so that a space measurement coordinate system is formed. The three-direction integrated structure of the seismometer is shown in the attached figure 1.
Furthermore, when the seismic sensor is installed, the geographical positions of the three components are adjusted, the EW points to the east and west, the NS points to the south and north, the UD points to the vertical direction, and the level bubble is adjusted to ensure that the seismic sensor is in the horizontal state and ensure the seismic waveform data accuracy.
Further, the whole earthquake sensor is of an electronic feedback type structure, namely, all directions are formed by additionally arranging electronic feedback circuits on a mechanical pendulum body in a certain form, the equivalent working period of the seismometer can be effectively prolonged, the mechanism of the electronic feedback type structure is shown in the attached drawing 2, a simple pendulum is taken as an example, if a certain movement A with a certain size exists on the ground, if the action of a feedback moment does not exist, the simple pendulum I should move to a position 1 under the action of the ground movement, but under the action of the feedback moment, the simple pendulum I only moves to a position 2, namely the position 2 is the output position of the feedback type simple pendulum I relative to the movement A on the ground. The output situation at this time is equivalent to the situation of a pure simple pendulum II, namely, under the action of ground motion A with the same size, the simple pendulum II and the feedback type simple pendulum I have the same rotation angle output. Obviously, the pure pendulum II has a longer physical pendulum length and a larger natural vibration period than the pure pendulum I. The folding pendulum length of the seismometer is expanded through electronic feedback, so that the purpose of extending the equivalent working period of the seismometer is achieved.
Further, the inside of the seismic sensor adopts an electromagnetic conversion principle, and a working principle block diagram of the seismometer is shown in fig. 3. When some motion (such as a mine earthquake) exists in a coal mine, the mass block in the seismic sensor generates relative motion relative to the suspended frame, so that the working coil generates relative motion relative to the magnetic field, and therefore induced voltage is generated in the working coil, the voltage is amplified by the amplifier and flows through the feedback network, and feedback torque is generated in the feedback coil in the form of current. Meanwhile, the voltage output from the amplifier passes through the compensation network and the differential driver to form double-end output of the seismometer.
Furthermore, the double ends of the seismometer output voltage signals, the seismometer is connected with a data acquisition unit for data acquisition, analog-to-digital conversion is carried out on the seismometer analog signals, and the data acquisition unit adopts general seismic data acquisition and recording equipment which has high resolution and large dynamic range, can output low-delay real-time data streams and is suitable for severe environments. The device can convert the input of a plurality of channels of analog voltage and frequency quantities into digital quantity to be output, has the functions of network and serial port data transmission, supports large-capacity data storage, and has the functions of data acquisition, recording, network data service, GPS synchronous time service and NTP/PTP time synchronous server network time service.
The seismic data acquisition device adopts GPS antenna timing, the GPS adopts IRIG-B code format synchronous timing, the IRIG-B code is a time code of one frame per second, and each pulse in the time format is called code element. The "on time" reference point for a symbol is its leading edge, the repetition rate of the symbol is referred to as the symbol rate, and the symbol rate of the B code is 100 pps. One index count for each symbol. The time interval between the leading edges of two adjacent code elements is the index counting interval, and the index counting interval of the B code is 10 ms. The index count starts at a frame reference point with a "0" and is incremented by 1 every other index count interval thereafter until the end of the frame. The index count interval of each frame of the B code is 100 until the end of the frame. The index counting interval of each frame of the B code is 100, and the index counting number is from 0 to 99. A time format frame reference mark begins. Consists of all symbols between two adjacent frame reference markers. The repetition rate of the time frame is the time frame rate, and the period of the time frame is the time frame period. The time frame rate of the B code is 1/sec, and the time frame period is 1 sec. The shorter the time frame period, the longer the information bits. The B code is 30 bits, with 10 bits (from 001 to 365 or 366) every day, 6 bits, 7 bits apart, 7 bits per second. The time sequence is second- > mi- > hour- > day. The positions are between P0 and P5. Pure binary seconds code of day time (SBS code): A. the B-format time code has 17 bits of pure binary second code of day time, 0 second in midnight, 86399 second time sequence at the maximum count, preceding low bit and succeeding high bit, besides the BCD code of year time.
Further, the seismic data acquisition unit adopts NTP/PTP time synchronization server network time service, the synchronization server network time service is suitable for a client/server program and a protocol which are operated on a computer, the program is written by a user serving as an NTP/PTP client, a server or both, under the basic condition, the NTP/PTP client sends out a time request to exchange time with the time server, and the exchange results are that the client can calculate the time delay, the compensation value of the time delay and adjust the time synchronization with the server. Typically, there are 6 exchanges in 5 to 10 minutes at the beginning of the setup. Once synchronized, a single information exchange is typically required to synchronize with the server time every 10 minutes. Redundant servers and different network paths are used to ensure accuracy of reliability.
The earthquake data collector is connected with the earthquake sensor well, acquires earthquake data information in real time, collects earthquake data of each station to the server through a special earthquake data transmission network built on the ground of the coal mine and in the pit, and the processor carries out daily data processing by accessing the data of the server.
The earthquake monitoring station network special for the coal mine comprises real-time receiving software, operation monitoring software, data analysis software and calibration processing software. Real-time receiving software, real-time receiving station network data, real-time displaying waveform, real-time monitoring of circuit on-off and real-time data storage; running monitoring software, monitoring the working state of the station network data processing software, and dynamically displaying the earthquake positioning result; the data analysis software is used for realizing the man-machine interaction processing, seismic facies recognition, seismic positioning and waveform file format conversion of seismic waveform data; and the calibration processing software is used for calculating pulse calibration and sine calibration, calculating a transfer function and detecting the working state of the seismometer.
The earthquake positioning method special for coal mine adopts grid positioning which is carried out by using an objective function minimum search method, namely, a grid m (m) is searched in a full space range1,m2,m3). Different objective functions are established.
Firstly, when the seismic source has the first arrival P wave and the second arrival S wave, according to the principle of the least square method, if the earthquake occurs at the position, the sum of the squares of the residual errors of the calculated travel time and the actual observed travel time of the seismic waves arriving at each station is minimum, and the seismic source position can be considered.
The objective function is as follows:
wherein: f (m)1,m2,m3T) is the residual square sum of the theoretical travel time and the observation travel time of each station and the center of the grid;
Obsiis the observed time of the seismic station; thoi(m1,m2,m3) The arrival time of the seismic station is calculated by a front database;
secondly, when only the first arrival P wave exists, according to the concept of equal time difference (EDT) surface, namely: t isi-Tj＝ti(m1,m2,m3)-tj(m1,m2,m3) (ii) a That is to say the time T of a certain earthquake reaching the station i and ji、TjDifference sum grid (seismic source) (m)1,m2,m3) Theoretical travel time t to reach the two stationsi(m1,m2,m3)、tj(m1,m2,m3) The difference is equal; the objective function is established as follows:
where T and (m)1,m2,m3) Respectively the observed time and the theoretical travel time, T, of the earliest arriving stationiAnd ti(m1,m2,m3) Is the observed time and theoretical travel time of each station (m)1,m2,m3) Representing the position of a seismic source, wherein n is the number of stations; according to the least squares principle, this grid is the seismic source when the sum of the squared residuals of the difference between observed time and the difference between theoretical travel time is minimal.
The system adopts seismic duration magnitude MDCalculating magnitude of vibration, measuring magnitude of vibration by recording duration of vibration, better conforming to actual conditions than measuring magnitude of vibration by maximum amplitude, the duration tau being defined generally as the time from initial movement of P wave, backward pursuit until dual amplitude of wake wave decays to 2 mm, and no wake wave above 2 mm appearing in 10 seconds laterIn the range of the earthquake amplitude, tau is almost irrelevant to the earthquake centre distance, and the larger earthquake amplitude is not considered, so that the earthquake magnitude can be easily measured by a computer for a transmission table network. The method can be used as a station formal measuring and reporting MLThe method of (1). The general formula of the calculation is as follows:
MD＝α0+α1logτ(s)+α2Δ
α 0, α 1, α 2 are constant in a certain range of magnitude, α 0 is-1.3-1.0, which varies with the magnification of the seismograph, α 1 is 1.7-2.6, which is mostly near 2.0 and varies with the passband of the seismograph, α 2 is very small, about ten thousandths, so it can be ignored when △ < 200 km.
Claims (10)
1. A special earthquake monitoring station network for coal mines comprises a ground monitoring device, an underground monitoring device, a GPS antenna, an NTP/PTP time synchronization server, a power supply, a ground monitoring server and a data processing computer; the ground monitoring device comprises a ground seismic data collector and a ground seismic sensor, and the underground monitoring device comprises an underground seismic data collector and an underground seismic sensor; the underground seismic sensors are connected in parallel and are connected with an underground seismic data acquisition unit; the ground seismic sensors are connected in parallel and are connected with a ground seismic data acquisition unit; the underground and ground seismic data acquisition devices are used for time service through a GPS antenna or an NTP/PTP time synchronization server connected with the underground and ground seismic data acquisition devices; the underground and ground seismic data acquisition units are connected with a ground monitoring server and a data processing computer, and the data processing computer is provided with a station network real-time receiving software, a station network operation monitoring software, a station network data analysis software and a station network calibration processing software; the method is characterized in that:
the ground monitoring device and the underground monitoring device form a ground and underground special earthquake three-dimensional monitoring table network, the ground and underground combined arrangement mode is adopted, the earthquake source positioning precision is improved, the real-time online monitoring is carried out on the earthquake phenomenon in the mining area range, and the earthquake source distribution and the earthquake change trend are visually displayed.
2. The special earthquake monitoring table network for coal mines as set forth in claim 1, which is characterized in that: the ground seismic sensor is a common seismometer, and the underground seismic sensor is an explosion-proof seismometer which is in a composite coal mine safety standard.
3. The special earthquake monitoring table network for the coal mine as claimed in claim 2, which is characterized in that: the whole seismic sensor adopts a three-direction integrated structure, and the sensitive axis directions of east-west, south-north and vertical direction are orthogonal pairwise, so that a space measurement coordinate system is formed.
4. The special earthquake monitoring table network for the coal mine as claimed in claim 3, which is characterized in that: the whole earthquake sensor is of an electronic feedback structure, namely, all directions are formed by additionally arranging electronic feedback circuits on a mechanical pendulum body in a certain form, so that the equivalent working period of the seismometer can be effectively prolonged.
5. The special earthquake monitoring table network for coal mines as set forth in claim 1, which is characterized in that: the ground seismic data acquisition unit and the underground seismic data acquisition unit are provided with high-speed analog signal input channels which are used for connecting seismic sensors; by adopting GPS synchronous time service, on one hand, GPS clock signals output from an IRIG-B code generator are received through optical fibers, and real-time data service is provided through the optical fibers, on the other hand, the whole system is subjected to network time service through an NTP/PTP time synchronization server, and the collector is internally provided with an NTP/PTP time service function to provide a real-time data function.
6. The special earthquake monitoring table network for the coal mine as claimed in claim 5, which is characterized in that: when the seismic data acquisition device adopts GPS antenna timing, the GPS adopts IRIG-B code format for synchronous timing; when the earthquake data collector adopts NTP/PTP time synchronization server network time service, the synchronization server network time service is suitable for a client/server program and a protocol which are operated on a computer, the program is compiled by users which are used as NTP/PTP clients, server terminals or both, under the basic condition, the NTP/PTP clients send out time requests to exchange time with the time server, and the exchange result is that the client can calculate the time delay, make up value of the time delay and adjust the time synchronization with the server.
7. The special earthquake monitoring table network for coal mines as set forth in claim 1, which is characterized in that: the real-time receiving software is used for receiving station network data in real time, displaying waveforms in real time, monitoring the on-off of a line in real time and storing real-time data; the monitoring software is operated to monitor the working state of the station network data processing software and dynamically display the earthquake positioning result; the data analysis software realizes earthquake waveform data man-machine interaction processing, earthquake phase identification, earthquake positioning and waveform file format conversion; the calibration processing software calculates pulse calibration and sine calibration, calculates a transfer function and detects the working state of the seismometer.
8. A method of locating seismic sources using the coal mine dedicated seismic monitoring station network of any of claims 1 to 7, characterized by: the positioning method adopts grid positioning which is carried out by using an objective function minimum search method and searches a grid m (m) in the full space range1,m2,m3) (ii) a Establishing different objective functions;
when the first arrival P wave and the second arrival S wave exist at the same time, according to the principle of the least square method, if an earthquake occurs at the position, the sum of squares of residual errors between the calculated travel time and the actual observed travel time of the earthquake waves reaching each station is minimum, and the calculated travel time and the actual observed travel time can be considered as the earthquake source position;
the objective function is as follows:
wherein: f (m)1,m2,m3T) is the residual square sum of the theoretical travel time and the observation travel time of each station and the center of the grid;
Obsiis the observed time of the seismic station; thoi(m1,m2,m3) The arrival time of the seismic station is calculated by a front database;
when only the first arrival P-wave, according to the concept of the equal time difference (EDT) plane, namely: t isi-Tj＝ti(m1,m2,m3)-tj(m1,m2,m3) (ii) a That is to say the time T of a certain earthquake reaching the station i and ji、TjDifference sum grid (seismic source) (m)1,m2,m3) Theoretical travel time t to reach the two stationsi(m1,m2,m3)、tj(m1,m2,m3) The difference is equal; the objective function is established as follows:
where T and (m)1,m2,m3) Respectively the observed time and the theoretical travel time, T, of the earliest arriving stationiAnd ti(m1,m2,m3) Is the observed time and theoretical travel time of each station (m)1,m2,m3) Representing the position of a seismic source, wherein n is the number of stations; according to the least squares principle, this grid is the seismic source when the sum of the squared residuals of the difference between observed time and the difference between theoretical travel time is minimal.
9. A method for determining seismic magnitude using the coal mine dedicated seismic monitoring network of any one of claims 1 to 7, characterized by: using seismic duration magnitude MDMagnitude of the magnitude is calculated and the magnitude is measured by recording the duration of the vibration, duration τ being defined generally as the time from the onset of the P-wave, back-tracking until the dual amplitude of the wake decays to 2 mm, and no longer appearing above 2 mm in the next 10 seconds.
10. A method of determining seismic magnitude as claimed in claim 9, wherein: the calculation formula of the magnitude is as follows:
MD＝α0+α1logτ(s)+α2Δ
α0、α1、α2constant within a certain range of magnitude α01.3-1.0, which varies with the magnification of the seismograph α11.7-2.6, mostly around 2.0, which varies with the passband of the seismograph α2Very small, on the order of parts per million, and therefore negligible at △ < 200 km.
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